THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


Kofoid 

JVJ3690Q3 


OUTLINES 


BOTANY, 


TAKES'  CHIEFLY  FROM 


SMITH'S  INTRODUCTION ; 


COSTATXING 


AX  EXPLANATION  OF  BOTANICAL  TEII' 


AXD 


AN  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OFL?          ! 

ALSO 

SOME  ACCOUNT  OF  NATURAL  ORDERS, 

A3TD  THE 

ANATOMY  AND  PHYblOLO^*    i,F.  VEGETABLES. 
Illustrated  by  Engravings. 

For  the  use  of  Schools  and  Stud-en 


BY  DR,  JOHN  LOCKE, 

T.BCTUHEU  O?f   BOTANV 


BOSTON : 

CUMMINGS  A,N) 
For  the  Aathdr. 

1819. 


DISTRICT 


$  Office. 


BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the  twenty  ninth  day  of  July,  A,  D.  1 
and  in  the  forty  fourth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  Amei 
John  Locke  of  the  said  District  has  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a  Book, 
right  whereof  h«  claims  as  author,  in  the  words  following,  viz. 

Outlines  of  Botany,  tak^a  chiefly  from  Smith's  Introduction  ;    containing  an 
planation  of  Botanical  Terms,  and  an  Illustration  of  the  System  ol   Linnaeus. 

- 


anaon  o      oanca      erms,  an    an      usrao 

ome  Account  of  Natural  Orders,  and  the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Vee-eta 
llustrated  by  Engravings.    Fr  t        se  of  Schools  and     tudents.      B     Dr 
Locke,  Lecturer  on  Botany. 


Ill 


, 
For  the  use  of  Schools  and  Students.      By  Dr. 


Ac 

Books,  to  the  Authors  and  Propri 
mentioned  ;"  and  also  to  an  Act,  entitled,  "  An  act  supplementary  to  an  Act 
Titled,  an  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  IV 
Charts,  and  Books,  to  the  Authors  and  Proprietors  of  such  copies,  during 
times  therein  mentioned ;  ami  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  Arts  of 

..-iti  and  other  Prints." 

JXO.  W.  DAVIS, 


TO 

JACOB  BIG  BLOW,  M.  D. 

Kumford  Professor  and  Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Botany  in  Harvard 
.  University. 

(  SlJR^ 

As  this  little  treatise  is  chiefly  taken  from  a 
\Vork  which  has  been  made  particularly  valuable  to 
our  local  situation  by  your  additions,  and  as  the  public, 
especially  in  this  vicinity,  are  much  indebted  to  your 
.t |ectures  and  publications,  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  Botany,  and  an  acquaintance  with  our  native 
productions,  there  is  a  peculiar  propriety  in  my  oflferirig 

lKyour  notice. 
mlP*^ 

As  you  are  acquainted  with  the  value  of  the  science, 

as  a  branch  of  early  education,  I  inn  confident  that 
every  effort  to  put  into  the  hands  of  the  young  a  facility 
in  its  acquisition,  will  meet  your  approbation. 
^  "Permit  me  then  to  place  the  following  pages  unde"r 
ycfur  protection,  and  offer  you  this  inscription  as  a 
of  personal  gratitude  and  esteem  for  the 

ir  and  benefits  of  your  friendship,  which  were 

f 
bestowed  on  me  white  your  pupil,  and  have 

een  continued. 
Touv  much  obliged  friend  and 

humble  servant, 

JOHN  LOCKE, 

uly  24,  1819. 


PREFACE. 

BOTANICAL  works  are  of  two  kinds,  elementary  and 
practical.  The  design  of  an  elementary  treatise  on 
botany,  is  to  enable  the  student  by  the  help  of  a  prac- 
tical work,  to  find  out  the  name  and  history  of  an  un- 
known plant  in  the  most  expeditious  and  certain  man- 
ner. This  it  does  by  making  him  acquainted,  in  the 
first  place,  with  the  marks  or  characters  by  which  plants 
are  distinguished  from  each  other,  such  as  the  forms  of 
the  leaves,  the  number  of  parts  in  the  flower,  &c.  and 
with  the  terms  applied  to  those  characters ;  and  in  the 
second  place,  with  a  system,  by  which  these  characters 
are  used  to  the  best  advantage,  and  a  multitude  of 
descriptions  so  methodized,  that  the  description  of 
an  individual  can  be  determined  with  expedition  and 
certainty. 

Practical  works  contain  no  explanations  of  terms  ov 
system,  but  presuming  the  student  to  be  already  ac- 
quainted with  these,  proceed  immediately  to  make  use 
of  them  in  the  descriptions  of  plants. 

Elementary  works  are  to  practical  ones  what  a 
spelling  book,  dictionary,  and  grammar  are  to  works 
of  history,  poetry,  &c.  Notwithstanding  this  distinc- 


VI  PREFACE. 

tion  of  botanical  books  is  so  obvious  as  seems  scarcely 
to  need  noticing  here,  yet  I  have  seen  those  who  were 
by  no  means  deficient  in  literature,  go  to  an  elementary 
treatise  such  as  Smith's,  and  search  it  in  vain  for  the 
description  of  some  unknown  plant  they  had  met  with. 

The  object  of  the  present  treatise  has  not  been  to 
bring  forward  any  thing  new  in  elementary  botany,  or 
to  alter  what  has  been  before  established  ;  but  merely 
to  collect  and  arrange  the  most  important  "  outlines'9 
of  the  subject  in  a  concise  form,  and  illustrate  them  by 
examples  of  native  plants,  affording  a  volume  of  a 
moderate  price  for  the  uqe  of  schools  and  students. 

For  several  years  I  have  occasionally  given  instruc- 
tions in  various  places,  to  classes  of  young  people  $  in 
several  instances  to  boarding  schools  of  young  ladies 
and  misses,  who  have  generally  acquired  the  elements 
with  great  facility.  In  giving  these  instructions  I  uni- 
formly felt  the  want  of  such  a  work  as  this  is  intend- 
ed to  be.  Other  instructors  informed  me  that  they 
experienced  the  same*  These  were  the  circumstances 
which  induced  me  to  prepare  the  following  pages. 

Lately  I  have  delivered  lectures  on  botany  in  Dart- 
mouth College  and  to  a  private  class  in  the  Medical 
Institution  of  Yale  College*  The  students  in  both  in- 
stances were  anxious  to  obtain  a  concise  work  contain- 
ing the  most  essential  elements,  as  they  had  scarcely 


PREFACE*  VU 

time  to  attend  to  more.  I  have  therefore  endeavoured 
to  make  this  treatise  acceptable  not  only  to  schools, 
but  to  students  generally. 

As  schools  are  inclined  to  attend  to  the  classes  and 
orders  of  Linn  sens  without  much  regard  to  their  prac- 
tical use,  I  have  been  particular  to  give  some  account 
of  genera  and  species,  and  the  application  of  the  ele- 
ments in  practice  in  «  finding  out  an  unknown  plant.'* 
The  classes  and  orders  of  Linnseus  were  construct- 
ed for  no  other  purpose  than  to  afford  a  means  of  ar- 
riving at  a  knowledge  of  genera  and  species,  and  a 
knowledge  of  them  seems  not  to  be  of  much  conse- 
quence unless  applied  to  this  purpose. 

I  have  added  some  observations  on  natural  orders, 
and  put  down  in  a  concise  way  the  natural  orders  of 
Linn  sens,  and  also  some  account  of  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  vegetables. 

The  English  terms  have  been  placed  first  and  the 
Latin  included  in  a  parenthesis,  after  the  manner  &f 
Thornton's  Grammar.  The  plants  mentioned  as  ex- 
amples of  the  various  elementary  principles,  are  gen- 
erally natives  or  exotics,  which  are  commonly  cultivat- 
ed. In  most  cases  the  common  English  appellation  of 
the  plant  is  put  down  first  and  this  followed  by  the  pro- 
per technical  or  Latin  name  in  italics,  separated  by  a 
comma. 


U  PREFACE. 

tion  of  botanical  books  is  so  obvious  as  seems  scarcely 
to  need  noticing  here,  yet  I  have  seen  those  who  were 
by  no  means  deficient  in  literature,  go  to  an  elementary 
treatise  such  as  Smith's,  and  search  it  in  vain  for  the 
description  of  some  unknown  plant  they  had  met  with. 

The  object  of  the  present  treatise  has  not  been  to 
bring  forward  any  thing  new  in  elementary  botany,  or 
to  alter  what  has  been  before  established  $  but  merely 
to  collect  and  arrange  the  most  important  "  outlines'9 
of  the  subject  in  a  concise  form,  and  illustrate  them  by 
examples  of  native  plants,  affording  a  volume  of  a 
moderate  price  for  the  uqe  of  schools  and  students. 

For  several  years  I  have  occasionally  given  instruc- 
tions in  various  places,  to  classes  of  young  people  $  in 
several  instances  to  boarding  schools  of  young  ladies 
and  misses,  who  have  generally  acquired  the  elements 
•with  great  facility.  In  giving  these  instructions  I  uni- 
formly felt  the  want  of  such  a  work  as  this  is  intend- 
ed to  be.  Other  instructers  informed  me  that  they 
experienced  the  same*  These  were  the  circumstances 
which  induced  me  to  prepare  the  following  pages. 

Lately  I  have  delivered  lectures  on  botany  in  Dart- 
mouth College  and  to  a  private  class  in  the  Medical 
Institution  of  Yale  College.  The  students  in  both  in- 
stances were  anxious  to  obtain  a  concise  work  contain- 
ing the  most  essential  elements,  as  they  had  scarcely 


PREFACE*  Vil 

time  to  attend  to  more.  I  have  therefore  endeavoured 
to  make  this  treatise  acceptable  not  only  to  schools, 
but  to  students  generally. 

As  schools  are  inclined  to  attend  to  the  classes  and 
orders  of  Linnaeus  without  much  regard  to  their  prac- 
tical use,  I  have  been  particular  to  give  some  account 
of  genera  and  species,  and  the  application  of  the  ele- 
ments in  practice  in  "  finding  out  an  unknown  plant.5* 
The  classes  and  orders  of  Linnseus  were  construct- 
ed for  no  other  purpose  than  to  afford  a  means  of  ar- 
riving at  a  knowledge  of  genera  and  species,  and  a 
knowledge  of  them  seems  not  to  be  of  much  conse- 
quence unless  applied  to  this  purpose. 

I  have  added  some  observations  on  natural  orders, 
and  put  down  in  a  concise  way  the  natural  orders  of 
Linnseus,  and  also  some  account  of  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  vegetables. 

The  English  terms  have  been  placed  first  and  the 
Latin  included  in  a  parenthesis,  after  the  manner  of 
Thornton's  Grammar.  The  plants  mentioned  as  ex- 
amples of  the  various  elementary  principles,  are  gen- 
erally natives  or  exotics,  which  are  commonly  cultivat- 
ed. In  most  cases  the  common  English  appellation  of 
the  plant  is  put  down  first  and  this  followed  by  the  pro- 
per technical  or  Latin  name  in  italics,  separated  by  a 
comma. 


Till  PREFACE. 

The  student  very  properly  inquires  what  books  are 
most  suitable  for  his  purposes.  In  addition  to  this  or 
some  other  elementary  work,  it  is  necessary  he  should 
have  some  practical  ones, such  as  Dr.  Bigelow's  "Plants 
of  Boston,"  which  is  particularly  recommended  in  this 
vicinity ;  although  it  describes  a  part  only  of  the  na- 
tive plants,  yet  Dr.  B's  descriptions  and  observations, 
added  to  the  generic  and  specific  characters,  render  it 
very  satisfactory  and  easy  even  to  those  who  are  but 
slightly  acquainted  with  the  language  of  botany  :  or, 
Mr. Eaton's  «  Manual  of  Br>tany/5  2d  ed.  «  containing 
descriptions  of  the  indigenous  plants  to  the  north  of 
Virginia,  which  are  well  defined  and  established  ;  and 
of  the  cultivated  exotics.55 

Mr.  NuttalPs  «  Genera  of  North  American  plants,55 

is  highly  recommended. 

* 

Richard's  Botanical  Dictionary,  New-Haven  trans- 
lation, is  very  useful  for  students. 

The  student  can  do  very  little  towards  getting  any 
practical  knowledge  of  botany  with  less  books  than  this 
or  some  other  elementary  work,  and  either  Dr  Bige- 
Iow5s  «  Plants  of  Boston/5  or  Mr.  Eaton5s  «  Manual 
of  Botany,55  as  a  practical  work. 

The  student  should,  if  possible,  examine  plants  from 
the  very  commencement  of  studying  the  elements,  es- 


3PKEFACE.  IX 

pecially  those  which  are  mentioned  as  examples,  when 
he  can  obtain  them. 

From  what  little  experience  I  have  had  in  instruct- 
ing, I  cannot  recommend  to  teachers  to  oblige  their 
pupils  to  commit  any  of  the  following  pages  formally 
to  memory  \  in  doing  which  they  are  by  no  means 
certain  to  get  the  ideas.  But  let  them  read  the  whole 
carefully  and  obtain  a  general  idea  of  the  various  parts 
of  a  plant,  as  the  roots,  trunks,  leaves,  and  especially 
of  the  seven  parts  of  the  flower  and  fruit,  without  mak- 
ing any  particular  effort  to  fix  in  the  mind  and  retain 
all  the  more  particular  terms,  which  is  a  thing  hardly 
practicable.  Let  them  get  some  knowledge  also  of  the 
classes  and  orders  and  the  characters  by  which  they  are 
distinguished  ;  and  then  proceed  immediately  to  exa- 
mine plants  by  practical  works,  agreeably  to  the  meth- 
od pointed  out,  p.  86.  At  the  same  time  genera,  species 
and  varieties  should  be  attended  to.  They  should  have 
their  elementary  work  by  them,  and  refer  immediately 
by  the  index  to  the  explanation  of  any  term  in  the 
practical  work  which  they  do  not  understand. 

If  the  student  is  anxious  to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of 
the  classes  and  orders  as  immediately  as  possible,  he 
may  commence  with  Part  ILL  the  fructification, 
flower  and  fruit,  p.  45.  When  he  has  studied  this  he 
will  be  prepared  to  understand  the  classes,  orders,  and 


X  PREFACK. 

genera.  After  acquiring  an  idea  of  these,  he  may 
proceed  to  study  parts  I.  &  IL  the  roots  and  herbage, 
on  which  principally  are  founded  the  characters  of  the 
species. 

We  will  just  mention  some  of  the  recommendations 
of  the  science  and  study  of  botany. 

1.  The  science  of  botany  is  valuable,  as  medicine, 
agriculture,  and  the  arts  are  more  or  less  dependant 
upon  it. 

2.  The  study  recommends  itself  as  a  "  rich  source 
of  innocent  pleasure."    It  is  pure  and  elegant,  and  be- 
comes more  and  more  interesting  as  it  is  pursued.     It 
adds  a  new  sense  and  opens  a  new  source  of  enjoyment. 
It  is  not  among  the  least  of  its  recommendations  to  the 
young,  that  it  takes  the  place  of  other  amusements, 
which  are  liable  to  be  useless,  pernicious,  or  even  ruin- 
ous, serving  in  this  way  as  a  preventive  to  intemper- 
ance and  dissipation. 

3.  The  study  is  profitable  to  the  young  especially,  as 
it  forms  the  mind  and  regulates  the  modes  of  thinking. 
Many  gentlemen  whose  learning  and  experience  have 
qualified  them  to  judge  in  subjects  of  this  nature,  have 
expressed  an  opinion  that  children  are  generally  too 
much  confined  to  the  study  of  abstract  subjects  $  subjects 
entirely  mental,  which  they  casi  with  difficulty,  if  at  all, 
comprehend,  and  that  their  minds  would  be  better  form- 


FRlil'ACE.  Xi 

^(1  and  their  rational  powers  sooner  developed  by  more 
attention  to  sensible  objects.  Dr.  Hosack  of  New- York, 
in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Eaton,  published  in  the  «  Manual  of 
Botany/5  makes  the  following  observation  on  this  sub- 
ject— "In  early  life,  before  our  external  senses  are  com- 
pletely evolved  ;  when  we  are,  in  truth,  endeavouring  to 
bring  them  into  exercise  and  usej  it  has  always  appear 
ed  to  me  a  very  absurd  practice  in  our  schools,  to  occu- 
py children  with  studies  of  an  abstract  nature,  and 
which  require  faculties  to  comprehend  them,  that  are 
not  yet  unfolded." 

The  power  of  methodizing  and  analyzing  a  subject 
so  important  in  ail  mental  operations,  is  no  doubt  bet- 
ter acquired  by  studying  natural  history,  than  by  any 
other  means. 

The  vegetable  kingdom,  as  arranged  by  Linnaeus,  is 
a  very  perfect  model  of  method.  The  divisions  and 
subdivisions  in  the  system  arc  founded  on  marks  so 
simple  and  obvious,  that  a  child  will  acquire  an  exact 
and  practical  knowledge  of  it. 

When  he  has  thus  acquired  a  knowledge  of  system 
and  a  power  of  analysis  by  attending  to  sensible  ob- 
jects, he  is  enabled  to  carry  it  into  abstract  operations, 
in  which  sensible  objects  arc  not  concerned. 

In  the  analysis  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  according  to  the  Lin- 

nxan  system,  we  pass  from  generals  to  particulars,  thus  :  it  is  first 

into  classes 9  classes  are  divided  into  orders,  orders  into 


Xll  PREFACE. 

genera,  and  genera  into  species.  This  is  the  course  commonly 
adopted  in  instructing. 

In  the  synthesis  we  ascend  from  particulars  to  erenerals,  thus  : 
species  unite  themselves  into  genera,  genera  are  united  into  or- 
ders, and  orders  into  classes.  This  is  the  order  in  which  discove- 
ries have  proceeded.  By  this  analysis  and  synthesis,  it  will  be 
seen,  that "  systematic  botany  is  practical  logic." 

The  advantages  of  method  are  mentioned  under  the  word  sys» 
tern,  page  3.  The  power  of  method  enables  one,  by  dividing  and. 
subdividing  a  complex  subject,  finally  to  simplify  each  portion, 
so  as  to  bring  it  perfectly  within  the  power  of  his  comprehension. 
The  power  of  method  is  in  mental  operations,  what  the  lever, 
screw,  See.  are  in  mechanical  ones  :  by  dividing  and  diminishing 
the  resistance  of  a  given  subject  to  any  degree,  it  brings  it  finally 
to  be  overcome  by  a  given  force,  however  small. 

4.  The  study  of  nature  is  acknowledged  to  be  high- 
ly important,  as  it  gives  us  just  views  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  thus  tends  to  make 
us  wiser  and  better.  It  is  the  study  of  the  "  elder 
scripture  written  by  God's  own  hand." 

The  evidences  of  himself  which  the  Creator  has  im- 
pressed on  all  his  works,  are  so  conspicuous  in  every 
class  of  natural  objects  with  which  we  are  conversant, 
and  particularly  in  those  which  delight  us  most,  in  the 
objects  of  every  flowery  walk,  that  he  who  has  had  his 
attention  once  directed  to  them,  must  continually  ob- 
serve them,  and  will  acquire  a  habit  of  deriving  pleas- 
ure from  their  contemplation. 

The  study  of  botany  is  every  year  becoming  more 
and  more  attended  to  by  academies  and  common 


PREFACE.  Xlll 

mt.g-fi.-  fiffi 

¥  ^^ 

schools,  and  from  its  recommendations  as  a  study  for 

the  young,  every  encouragement  should  be  afforded. 

The  increasing  attention  to  the  study  of  natural  his- 
tory is  reckoned  among  the  late  improvements  in 
education  in  this  country.  Professor  Silliman  makes 
the  following  observation  on  this  point  in  his  American 
Journal  of  Science.  "  An  extensive  cultivation  of  the 
physical  sciences  is  peculiar  to  an  advanced  state  of  so- 
ciety, and  evinces  in  a  country  where  they  flourish,  a 
highly  improved  state  of  the  arts,  and  a  great  degree 
of  intelligence  in  the  community.  To  this  state  of 
things  we  are  now  fast  approximating.  The  ardent 
curiosity  regarding  these  subjects,  already  enkindled 
in  the  public  mind,  the  very  respectable  attainments  in 
science  which  we  have  already  made,  and  our  rapidly 
augmenting  means  of  information  in  books,  instruments, 
collections,  and  teachers,  afford  ground  for  the  happiest 
anticipations." 

Boston,  July  23,  1819. 
6 


CONTENTS; 

Page. 

Introductory  deflations, 

Part  I.  Hoot,  -       6 

Part  II.  Herbage,            -  -           10 

Chapter  I.  Trunks,  -     10 

II.  Buds,  9.0 

III.  Leaves,  -       22- 

IV.  Appendages,  -            38 
V.  Inflorescence,  -      40 

Part  III.  Fructification,  45 

Part  IV.  System  of  Linnaeus,  &c.                -  64 

Chapter  I.  Classes  arid  Orders,  65 

II.  Genera  and  Species,    -  79 

III.  Natural  Orders,     -  89 

Part  V.  Anatomy  and  Physiology,               -  -      99 

Chapter  I.  Germination,  100 

II.  Anatomy  of  Vegetables,  -     102 

III.  Physiology  of  Vegetable,  -            107 
instruments,                         -  -     123 
Herbarium,       -  -            124 


OUTLINES  OF  BOTANY. 

INTRODUCTORY    DEFINITIONS. 

I.  Natural  History. 

.NATURAL  HISTORY  is  that  science  which 
treats  of  the  productions  of  nature  constituting  the 
globe  we  inhabit,  as  they  come  from  tiie  hands. of  the 
Creator. 

It  is  generally  divided  into  three  branches. 

1.  Zoology,  which  includes  all  animals. 

2.  Botany,  which  treats  of  plants. 

3.  Mineralogy 9  which  includes  the  unorganized  mass 
of  our  globe  ;  as  earths,  rocks,  ores,  &c. 

Observation.     1.  These  are  called  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature. 

2  A  fourth  branch  has  been  added:  Aerology t  which  includes 
the  atmosphere  and  whatever  floats  in  it 

3.  Animals  are  nourished  by  vegetables,  and  vegetables  by 
minerals  ;  thus  do  plants,  by  tuking  up  unorganized  matter 
from  the  mineral  kingdom  and  converting  it  into  nutriment  for 
the  animal  kingdom,  form  an  indispensable  link  between  them. 

BOTANY  is  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek  Botane 
grass.  It  is  applied  to  that  branch  "of  natural  science 
which  teaches  us  the  relations,  properties,  and  general 
economy  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  at  tiie  same 
time  by  presenting  the  innumerable  individuals  of 
which  this  kingdom  consists  in  a  form  of  arrangement 
that  brings  them  easily  within  the  reach  of  our  compre- 
hension, enables  us  in  practice  both  to  designate  them 
by  their  proper  names,  and  to  avail  ourselves  of  what 
is  known  concerning  their  medicinal  or  economical 
uses.  Encijc. 
1 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

Distinctions  of  Vegetables  from  height)  places   of 
growth,  $c.* 

I.  From  height  and  consistence. 

1.  A  tree,  (arbor)  a  woody  plant,  generally  rising-  to  a  great 
height  and  of  long  life,  producing  buds  in  cold  climates.      Exam- 
ple, Oak,  Pine 

2.  A  shrub,  (Jrutex}  a  tree  of  small  size  whose  young  branches 
generally  produce  buds.     Ex.  Lilac,  Syringa. 

3  Under  Shrub,  (sufrutex)  a  woody    plant    which    is   usually 
smaller  than  a  shrub,  and  frequently  produces  no  buds*     Ex.  Par- 
tr id ge- berry,  Gaultheria. 

4  Herb,   (Jierb({)  of  a  tender    substance   which    dies    down   in 
winter  whether  its  roots  be  annual  or  perennial.     Ex.  Tulip, 

Observation.  The  difference  between  a  tree  and  a  shrub  is  dif- 
ficult to  define,  although  obvious  enough  to  the  sight  in  many  in- 
stances ;  the  trunk  of  a  tree  is  usually  single,  of  a  shrub,  more 
frequentfy  numerous  even  from  the  base. 

II.  Distinctions  from  the  country  in  which  they  grow* 

1.  Exotics,  (ezoticci)  plants  introduced  from  foreign  countries. 

2.  Indigenous,  (indigen*)  natives  of  the  country  in  which  they 
grow. 

III.  Places  where  they  naturally  grow. 

In  trodden  places,  (ruderales.)  In  fields,  (arvenses.)  Ex.  Ve- 
ronica arvensis.  In  gardens,  (cufla.)  In  or  Lear  water,  (aquatfaai) 
aquatics.  In  marshes,  (pahtdosa  )  Ex.  Scirpi.  On  the  borders 
of  rivers,  (littorales)  Ex.  Rushes.  On  the  sea-shore,  (maritime  ) 
marine.  In  meadows,  (pratenses.)  On  sands,  {arenosa.)  On 
plains,  (campestres.)  In  hedges,  {dumosa:  or  &epiari<e<')  In  woods, 
(iiemorostf.)  On  mountains,  (nwnttin<e.')  On  very  high  mountains, 
alpine  (atpin<e.)  So  high  as  to  be  frequently  enveloped  in  clouds. 
THORNTON. 

Observation.  It  it^remarable  that  although  plants  in  olher  sit- 
uations vary  so  much,  yet  the  tops  of  high  mountains  which  are  in 
the  "  region  of  the  clouds**  generally  produce  the  same.  Thus  the 
Alpine  plants  of  England,  Scotland,  Wales,  Lapland,  firrerbnd, 
Switzerland,  Siberia,  America,  &c. ;  of  Olympus,  Ararat,  the  Alps, 
the  Andes,  Alleganies,  and  White  Hills,  although  growing  so  re- 
mote from  each  other,  are  all  similar.  Various  zones  of  altitude 
have  each  their  peculiar  productions  ;  so  that  the  plants  serve  to 
indicate  the  height  of  their  place  of  growth. 

*  These  distinctions  are  not  essential  in  the  Linnsenn  system,  nml  are  introduced 
here  as  a  sort  of  parenthesis  for  the  want  of  a  more  appropriate  place. 


INTRODUCTION.  o 

II.  Characters. 

CHARACTERS  arc  the  marks  or  signs  by  which  nat- 
ural objects  are  distinguished  from  each  other.  The 
term  character  in  botany  is  more  particularly  ap- 
plied to  that  set  of  marks  which  distinguish  any  one 
plant  from  all  others  :  it  is  applied  also  to  the  marks 
by  which  the  various  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
as  the  classes  and  orders,  are  distinguish. 

Characters  are  taken  from  the  number,  figure,  situa- 
tion, proportion,  and  connexion  of  the  various  parts  of  a 
plant.  Each  individual  mark,  as  the  form  of  the  leaf, 
the  number  of  parts  of  the  flower,  &c.  is  called  a  SIM- 
PLE CHARACTER. 

Observation.  The  object  of  the  following  work  is  to  make  the 
student  acquainted  with  these  simple  characters  which  serve  as 
an  alphabet  *of  natural  letters,  by  the  various  combinations  of 
which  in  each  plant,  its  character,  or  name,  so  to  speak,  is  written 
upon  it.  This  object  should  be  kept  in  view  by  the  student,  other- 
wise the  terms  and  their  definitions  will  be  unmeaning1  and  tire- 
some. 

III.  System. 

SYSTEM,  (sy  sterna)  is  an  arrangement  of  natural 
bodies  according  to  assumed  characters  ;  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiding  the  mind  and  memory  in  acquiring  and 
retaining  a  knowledge  of  them. 

The  principal  advantages  of  system  result  from  di- 
vision and  subdivision,  which  enable  us  to  direct  our 
whole  attention  to  a  part  of  a  subject,  to  a  part  of  that 
part,  arid  so  on,  without  being  burthened  with  things  in 
connexion  :  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  greatest 
facility  to  arrange  all  together  so  as  to  constitute  one 
perfect  whole. 

Many  systems  of  arrangement  of  vegetables  have 
been,  at  various  times,  proposed  ;  but  the  system  of 
the  celebrated  Linnseus,  being  founded  on  principles 
which  are  simple  and  obvious,  and  such  as  arc  perma- 
nent and  universal  in  nature  \  has  had  the  most  gener- 
al reception. 


4  1  j\  TR  01)  U  CT  IO.V. 

According  to  the  Linnsean  system  the  vegetable 
kingdom  is  divided  into  CLASSES,  ORDERS,  GENERA, 
and  SPECIES. 

IV.   General  Definitions  cft/ie  Linncean  System. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  is  the  science  of  animals,  vege- 
tables and  minerals.  Seep.  1. 

BOTANY  is  that  branch  of  natural  history  that  gives 
MS  a  knowledge  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  See  p.  1. 

DIVISIONS    OF    THE    VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 

I.  Artificial  Divisions. 

1.  CLASSES  are  the  first  great  divisions  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  founded   upon  the  number,  situation, 
proportion,  &c.  of  the  stamens. 

2.  ORDERS  are  divisions  of  the  classes,  founded  up- 
on  the  number,  situation,  &c.  of  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils ;*  principally  upon  the  pistils. 

II.  Natural  Divisions. 

3.  GENERA  are  divisions  of  the  orders  into  families, 
(genera)  not  founded  particularly  upon  the  stamens  and 
pistils,  but  upon  the  natural  resmblance  the  individuals 
of  a  family  (genus)  bear  to  each   other.      Examples, 
U  The  family  of  Roses  (Rosa.')     2.  1  he  family  of  Vi- 
olets (Viola.')     3.  The  Lilies  (Zi/imn.) 

There  is  always  found  in  thejlawtir  and/nn£  (frucii- 
ficatio)  a  mark  or  character  common  to  all  the  individ- 
uals constituting  a  genus.  This  is  called  the  Generic 
Character.  Ex.  1.  In  the  family  of  Buttercups  (Ra- 
nunculus) it  is  a  scale  at  the  base  of  each  flower-leaf 
(pdalS)  2.  In  the  Lilies  it  is  a  longitudinal  groove  in 
each  of  the  petals. 

4.  SPECIES,  (species')  are  the  individuals  of  which  a 
genus  consists  :  and    of  course  are  divisions    of  the 
genera.  Ex.  1.  The  red  and  white  liose  are  two  species 

*  Parts  of  the  flower  to  be  hereafter  defined. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

in  the  genus  (Rosa)  Rose.  2.  The  blue  and  white 
Violet  are  two  species  in  the  genus  (Viola)  Violet.  3. 
The  various  species  of  Lilies,  orange,  white,  &c. 

5.  VARIETIES,  (varielas)  are  only  accidental  varia- 
tions in  the  appearance  of  the  same  individual  species. 
Varieties  are  distinguished  from  species  by  being  not 
permanently  propagated  by  soed.  Ex.  1.  «  All  apples- 
are  but  varieties  of  the  same  species  ;  because  from  the 
seed  of  the  same  apple  may  be  produced  trees  bearing 
sour,  sweet,  red,  green,  large  and  small  apples  re- 
spectively. But  the  Quince  is  a  different  species,  be- 
cause it  cannot  be  produced  from  ar.ple  seeds." 

2.  All  the  different  kinds  of  Potatoes  are  only  varie- 
ties of  the  same  species  (solanum  tuberosnrn)  ;  and  al- 
though they  are  permanently  propagated  by  the  root 
yet  they  are^all  produced  promiscuously  by  the  seed. 

CX.ASSES  are  compared  to  States. 

ORDERS  *<          to  Towns  or  Cities. 

GENERA  "          to  Families. 

SPECIES  «          to  Individuals. 

V.  Jl  Vegetable  and  its  Primary  Divisions. 
VEGETABLES,  which  constitute  the  second  kingdom 
of  nature  according  to  the  definition  of  Linnaeus, 
"  grow  and  live."  or  they  may  be  described  as  organ- 
ic bodies  which  draw  the  matter  of  their  nourishment 
generally  from  the  earth  by  mejfns  of  pores  or  vessels 
placed  on  the  external  surface  of  their  roots. 

Prim  a  *y  I)  m,s  io  ns. 

The  primary  parts  of  a  vegetable,  (paries  primariai) 
are 

1.  The  ROOT,  or  descending  part. 

2.  The  HERUAGE,  comprizing  every  part  except  the 
root,  flower,  and  fruit. 

3.  The  FRUCTIFICATION,  which  consists  of  the  flow- 
er and  fruit. 

Observation.  The  following'  matter  is  arranged  according  to 
these  divisions. 


PART  I. 

ROOT,  (Radix?) 

The  ROOT  is  the  descending  part  of  a  vegetable 
which  enters  the  earth  or  other  substance  in  search  of 
nourishment  for  the  plant. 

The  Root  consists  of  two  parts. 

1.  Caudex,  the  body  of  the  root. 

2.  Radicula,  Radicle,  the  fibre.* 

The  latter  only  is  necessary,  being  the  part  which 
imbibes  nourishment. 

Roots  are  distinguished  by  their  duration,  form,  &c. 

I.  Duration. 

1.  ANNUAL,  (amltia)  belongs  to  plants  which  perish 
altogether  within  a  year,  the  species  being  continued  by 
means  of  srecls  produced.  Ex.  Barley. 

•  2.  BIENNIAL,  (tiennis)  such  plants  as  are  produced 
from  seed  either  in  the  spring,  sum  me  iy  or  autumn,  and 
Jiving  through  tiro  ensuing  winter  produce 'flower  and 
fruit  the  following  summer  and  then  die.     Ex.  Carrot, 
Radish. 

*  Observation.     The  term  biennial  is  applied  to  any  plant  that  is 
produced  one  year   and    fk>wers  another,   provided  it  flowers  but 
once,  whether  that  event  takes  place  the  second  year  as  usual,  or 
\\hether,  from   unfavourable   circumstances,  it  may  happen  to  be 
deferred  to  any  future  time. 

3.  PERENNIAL,  (perennis*)  such  as  live  and  blossom 
through  many  succeeding  seasons  to  an  indefinite  peri- 
od.    Ex.  Trees  and  many  herbaceous  plants. 

Observation.  1.  The  herbage  is  often  annual  while  the  root  is 
perennial :  such  plants  are  notwithstanding  termed  perennial. 

2.  The   duration   of  plants  is   marked  by  the  following1  signs. 
O  Annual,  £  Biennial,  Jj   S'.rubby,  %  Perennial. 

*  1  he  fibres,  particuTarly  their  extremities  which  imbibe  nourishment,  are  in  every 
case  strictly  muuiu!.  After  the  cessation  of  their  functions  in  autumn  arid  before 
their  reproduction  in  the  spring,  w  the  time  to  transplant  vegetables  successfully. 


II.  Form,  tye. 

L.  FIBROUS,  (fibrosa,')  Plate  1,  fig.  1.  consisting  of 
fibres  either  simple  or  branched,  which  convey  nour- 
ishment directly  to  the  basis  of  the  stem  or  leaves. 
Ex.  Many  of  the  grasses,  as  Poa  annua. 

Observation.  This  is  the  most  simple  in  its  nature  of  all  roots, 
and  belongs  principally  to  plants  that  require  but  a  slight  support, 
such  as  most  annual  herb* 

2.  REPENT,  (repens.')  PL  1,  fig.  2.  A  creeping  root. 
A  kind  of  subterraneous  stem  creeping  and  branching 
horizontally  and  throwing  out  fibres  as  it  goes.  Ex. 
Mint,  (Mentha.') 

Observation.  Plants  furnished  with  a  creeping-  root  are  multi- 
plied by  their  roots  in  such  a  manner  as  frequently  to  occur  in  beds 
of  greater  or  less  extent. 

S.  FUSIFORM,  (f us  if  or  mis.}  PL  1,  fig.  3.  A  spin- 
dle-shaped or  tapering  root,  thick  at  the  top  and  tap- 
ering downwards  to  a  p,;inU  Ex.  Carrot,  Parsnip, 
Kadish. 

Observation.  The  fusiform  root  descends  perpendicularly  and 
throws  qut  fib.'es  or  radicles  from  various  parts. 

4.  ABRUPT,  (jmzmorsm?)     PL  1,  fig.  4.  Appearing 
as  if  the  end  was  hi  I  ten  off.      Ex.  Devil's  bit,   Liutris. 
Birdsfoot  Violet,  Viola  petiata. 

5.  TUBEROUS.  (tuberosaS)     PI.  1,  fig.  5.     Composed 
of  tubers.     It  is  of  many  different   kinds.      The  most 
genuine  consists  of  fleshy  knobs  various  in  form,  con- 
nected by  common  stalks  or  fibres,  as  in  the  Potatoe, 
Solatium  tuber  osum. 

Species  of  the  Tuberous  Root. 

1.  Twin,  (geminata.)      PL  1,  fig.  6.     Consisting  of 
a  pair  of  globular  or  oval  bodies,  tubers.     Ex.  Orchis. 

2.  Palmate,    (palmata.')      PI.   1,  fig.  7.      Divided 
into  blunt  lobes  like  fingers.     Ex,  Orchis  macidata. 

Observation.  "  Of  these  globular  or  palmate  knobs,  one  produ- 
ces the  herb  and  flowers  of  the  present  year, withering  away  towards 


8  HOOTS. 

autumn,  and  the  other  is  reserved  for  the  following  season,  while 
in  the  mean  time  a  third  is  produced  to  succeed   the  latter/'  — 

Smith. 

3.  Fasicular,  (fasicularis.}  PI.  1,  fig.  8.  When 
a  large  portion  of  tubers  proceed  from  a  common  ren- 
tre  shooting  forth  in  an  elongated  form,  as  in  Peony.  — 

Observation*  1.  The  radicles  of  tubers  originate  principally 
from  the  stalks  and  the  place  of  their  insert  ion. 

2.  Tubers  are  reservoirs  of  nourishment,  moisture,    and  vital 
energy. 

3.  In  most  cases  a  tuber  is  produced  o  ie  season,  lives  through 
the  succeeding  winter,  and  dies  the  next,  after  having  produced 
the  plant  und  another  tuber    or  parcel  of  tubers   to   'succeed   ,t. 
Thus  the  herbage  is  annual,  and  the  root,  strictly  speaking-,  bienr 
ninly  but  ns  it  annually  reproduces  itself  and  thus  is  tx-rpetuated, 
it  is  termed  p?rerti.inh     Ex   Pctatoe,  (Solatium  tiibero&um  ) 

4.  The  knobs  of  genuine  tuberous  roots,  such  as  ti.e  polatre,  ?ire 
studded  with  buds,  in  which  respect  such  roots  differ  esst  nti  ,lly 
from  bulbous  ones  ;   which  last  are   themselves   simple   buds   and 
produce  their  shoots  as  well  as  their  offsets,  either  from  the   cen- 
tre or  from  the  base. 

All  perennial  roots,  which  have  annual  herbage,  have  buds.  The 
buds  in  bulbous  roots  are  in  the  centre,  as  they  ave  also  in  many 
of  the  spindle-shaped  roots  In  the  creeping  root  they  are  at  its 
ends  ;  in  the  tuberous,  as  has  just  been  observed,  scattered  over 
its  surface. 


6.  BULBOUS,  (bblbos(i)  a  fleshy  root  of  a  bulbous  or 
globular  form. 

Species  of  the  Bulbous  Hoot. 

1.  Solid,  (so/i(/«.)  PI.  1»fi£.  9.  Of  a  uniform  sub- 
stance. Ex.  Crocus  and  Tulip. 

%.  Tunicate,  (turncdta.)  PI.  15  fig.  10.  Compos- 
ed of  concentric  layers  enveloping  one  another.  Ex. 
Oniqii,  Jttiiinn. 

3.  Scaly,  (sqwmmik)  PL  1,  fig*  11>  Consisting 
of  fleshy  scales  connected  only  at  their  base.  Ex. 
While  Lily. 

Observation  1.  The  two  latter  kinds  have  a  very  close  analogy 
with  leaf  buds  They  are  the  reservoirs  of  the  vital  powers  of  the 
plant  during  the  winter  season.  They  as  well  as  buds  contain,  in 


KOOTS. 

winter,  plants  perfect  in  all  their  parts  in  an  embryo  state  ;  the 
leaves  and  Die  flowers  with  all  their  parts  may  frequently  be  dis- 
tinctly dissected  out,  and  the  stamens,  p-stils,  &c.  counted. 

Linnaeus  arranged  both  buds  and  bulbs  under  the  same  term, 
Hybernaculum,  winter  residence 

2  The  radicles  are  generally  from  the  base  of  bulbous  roots,  as 
in  the  Onion. 

7.  GRANULATED,  (granulata.)  PI.  1,  fig.  12.  Com- 
posed of  joints  or  grains.  Ex.  Wood  Sorrel,  Oxalis 
Jicctosdla.  White  Saxifrage,  Saxifraga  grnnulata* 

Observation  1.  It  is  with  roots  as  with  other  natural  objects,  we 
can  apply  terms  to  the  most  prominent  features,  while  there  are  so 
many  intermediate  points  of  gradual  transition,  that  we  hardly 
know  where  to  draw  the  line  of  distinction.  Tiie  application  of 
these  terms  is  in  many  cases  arbitrary. 

As  botanists  have  in  general  determined  under  what  head  to 
place  the  root  of  every  species  of  plant,  we  have  only  to  follow 
them. 

2.  Specific  characters  are  sometimes  taken  from  the  root,  and 
in  some  cases  the  specific  name  also,  as  Solanum  tuberosumt  Pota- 
toe  ;  Ranunculus  bidbosus,  Bulbous  Ranunculus,  and  Ranunculus 
fascicukirnt. 


PART  II. 

THE  HERBAGE,  (lierba.} 

The  HERBAGE  consists  of  the  Trunk,  Leaves,  Buds, 
and  Appendages. 

CHAP.  I. 
TRUNK,  (Truncus.} 

Linnaeus  enumerates  seven  kinds  of  Trunks,  Stems 
or  Stalks  of  vegetables,  caulis,  culmus,  scapus,  peaun- 
culus,  petiolus,frons,  and  stipes. 

1.  Stem. 

STEM,"  (caulis.*)  PI.  2,  fig.  1.  Bears  or  elevates 
from  the  root  the  leaves  as  well  as  flowers.  Ex.  The 
trunks  and  branches  of  all  trees  and  shrubs.  A  great 
proportion  of  herbaceous  plants,  especially  annuals. 

The  stem  is  described  from  its  duration,  composition, 
mode  of  growth,  shape,  fyc. 

I.  Duration. 

1 .  HERBACEOUS,  (hcrbaceus)  annual,  and  not  woody. 

2.  SUFFJRUTICOSE,  (suffniticosus)   belonging  to   un- 
dershrubs. 

3    FRUTICOSE,  (jruticosus)  belonging  to  shrubs. 
4.  ARBOREOUS,  (arboreus)  belonging  to  trees. 

II.  Composition. 

1.  SIMPLE,  (simplex)  without  branches.  Ex.  White 
Lily. 

2.  BRANCHED,  (ramosns)  giving  out  branches  as  in 
most  plants. 

3.  TWO-RANKED,  (distichus)  branches  spreading  in 
two  horizontal  directions.      Ex.   Hemlock  tree,  Pinus 
Canadensis. 


STEMS.  11 

4.  FOUR-RANKED,  (brachiatus.}     PI.  2,  fig.  2.  When 
they  spread   in  four  directions,  crossing  each  other  al- 
ternately in  pairs.     Ex.  Common  Lilac,  Syringa  vul- 
garis. 

Observation.     A  common  mode  of  growth  in  shrubs  which  have 

opposite  leaves. 

5.  MUCH-BRANCHED,  (ranrnissimus)  repeatedly  sub- 
divided into  a  great  many  branches   without   order. 
Ex.  Most  Trees. 

6.  ABRUPTLY-BRANCHED, (determinate  ramosus)  when 
each  branch  after  terminating  in  flowers  produces  a 
number  of  fresh  branches  in  a  circular  order  from  just 
below  the  origin  of  those  flowers.     Ex.  Azalea  nudi- 
Jlora. 

7.  PROLIFEROUS, (prdifer)  shooting  out  new  branches 
from  the  summits  of  the  former  ones.     Ex.  Pines. 

8.  VERT ic i I/LATE,    (verticillatits)     giving     off  its 
branches  at  regular  intervals  in  whorls  like  rays  from 
a  centre,  as  in  the  White  Pine,  Pinus  strobus. 

9.  DICHOTOMOUS,  (dichotomus.}  '  PI.  2,  fig.  3.    Re- 
peatedly forked.     Ex.  Cerastinm  vi^gatum. 

10.  PANICULATE,  (jjamculatus)  where  the  brandies 
are  many  times  subdivided.     Ex.  Erigeron  Canadense, 
see  Panicle. 

11.  FASTIGIATE,  (fattigialus)  the  stem  being  ter- 
minated by  equal  brandies  so  as  to  make  a  level  top. 
Ex.  Yarrow,  Jtchillea  miUefolium. 

III.  Mode  of  Growth. 

1.  ETIECT,  (credus)  upright,  nearly  perpendicular. 

2.  OBLIQUE,  (obliquiis)  visibly  turned  from  the  per- 
pendicular line. 

3.  PROCUMBENT,  (procjtmbens)  lying  on  the  ground. 
Ex.  Purslane,  Portidacca  olcracea. 

4.  REPENT,  (renews.)     PI.  9..  fig.  4.     Creeping,  run- 
ning on  the  ground  ami  taking  root  at  certain  distan- 
ces as  it  goes.      Ex.  Creeping   Crowfoot,  Ranunculus 
repws. 


12  TRUNK*. 

5.  ASCENDING,    (astendens)    ascending    obliquely 
without  support. 

Observation.  From  a  horizontal  direction  is  gradually  curved 
or  bowed  upwards. 

6.  PROSTRATE,  (prostratus  or  deprcssus)  when  it  lies 
remarkably    flat,    spreading    horizontally    over  the 
ground, 

7.  RECLINING,    (reclinatus)    curved    towards    the 
ground.     Ex.  Black  berry.  Rnbus. 

8.  RADICAL T,  (radicans)  clinging  to  any  body  for 
support  by  means  of  fibres  which  do  not  imbibe  nour- 
ishment.    Ex.  Vitis  quinqnejbiici,  common  Creeper* 

9.  CLIMBING,  (scandens)  either  with  spiral  tendrils 
for  its  support,  as  the  Vine,  Vitis9  Passionflower,  Pas- 
siflora  ;  or  by  adhesive  fibres,  as  in  the  preceding  par- 
agraph. 

c  10.  TWINING,  (voluUlis.')  PI.  2,  fig.  5.  Twining 
in  a  spiral  manner  round  other  plants,  either  from  left 
to  right,  supposing  the  observer  in  the  centre,  (with 
the  sm)  as  tiie  Hop,  or  from  right  to  left,  (against  the 
sun)  as  Convolvulus  sepium. 

11.  FLAGELLIFOBME,  (Jlagettiformis)  resembling  a 
whip- lash. 

12.  SARMENTOSE,  (sarmentosus)  trailing  ;  a  creep- 
ing stem  barren  of  flowers,  thrown  out  from  the  root 
for  the  purpose  of  increase,  giving  rise  to   another 
plant  where  it  takes  root.     Ex.  Strawberry. 

Observation.  A  sarmentose  stem  is  filiform  and  almost  naked 
or  having  only  leaves  in  bunches  at  the  joints  or  knots  where  it 
strikes  root. — Jllartin. 

It  is  called  a  sarmtntum  or  a  flagellum,  a  runner.  When  leafy,  it 
is  arenerally  denominated  STOT,O,  a  sucker,  or  scyon,  as  in  Bugle, 
Jl}u.ga  reptanSy  and  Sweet  Violet,  Viola  odorata* — Smith. 

13.  STRAIGHT,  (recto)  as  in  Liliurn. 

14.  STRICTUS  expresses  only  a  more  absolute  de- 
gree of  straightness. 

15.  SPREADING,  (laxusvrdrffusus)  expanding  in  an 
open,  loose  manner. 


STEMS.  IS 

16.  FLEXIJOTJS,   (Jlexnosus]  zigzag  ;  forming  angles 
from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right. 

17.  JOINTED,  (articidatus)  as  in  the  Prickly  Pear, 
Cactus. 

IV.  Shape. 

1.  ROUND,  (feres)  cylindrical. 

2.  HALF-CYLINDRIC,  (semiteres)  round  on  one  side 
and  flat  on  the  other. 

3.  COMPRESSED,  (compressus)  more  or  less  flattened 
on  the  sides.     Ex.  Poa  compressa. 

4.  TWO-EDGED,    (anceps.}      Ex.  Sisyrinchium  an- 
ceps. 

The  term  ANGUINE,  comprehends  the  following. 

5.  TRIANGULAR,  (triangularis)  having  three  edges. 
Ex.  Cactus  triangnlaris. 

6.  THREE-SIDED,  (triqueter)  having  three  fiat  sides. 

7.  FOUR-CORNERED,  (tetragonns  or  quadrangulans) 
square.     Ex.  Balm. 

8.  FIVE-SIDED,    (pcntagonus    or    qwnquangularis) 
having  five  angles  and  five  sides. 

Observation.  When  the  number  of  angles  is  either  variable  or 
more  than  five,  it  is  usual  merely  to  describe  the  stem  as  (angulo* 
sus)  angular,  except  where  the  precise  number  makes  a  specific 
difference,  as  in  the  genus  Cartu*.— Smith. 

V.  Clothing. 

1.  NAKED,    (nudns)  entire  nakedness,  destitute  of 
leaves,  hair,  prickles,  &c. 

2.  LEAFLESS,  (aphyttus)  without  leaves.  Ex.  Cactus. 

3.  SCALY,  (sguatnosus)  having  scales.      Ex.  Beech- 
drops,  Orobanche. 

4.  IMBRICATED,  (iinbrtcatns)  covered  with  scales, 
so  that  the  stem  does  not  appear.      Ex.  Sempcrd-piim, 
Houseleek, 

5.  WINGED,  (alatus)  furnished  longitudinally  with 
a  membrane  which  is  commonly  a  prolongation  of  the 
hase  of  the  leaves.     Ex.  Thistle. 


14  TRUNKS. 

VI.  Surface. 

1.  SMOOTH,  (glaber}  destitute  of  hairs,  glands,  or  any 
particular  excrescences. 

2.  POLISHED,  (/ords)  the  surface  being  every  where 
equal  and  smooth. 

3.  SHINING,  (nitidus)  polished ;  smooth,  and  shining. 

4.  VISCID,  (viscidus)  covered  with  a  clammy  juice. 

5.  WARTY,  (verrucosus.}     Ex.  Enonymous  verru- 
cosus. 

6.  PAPiLLosE,(|;api#0sws)  covered  with  soft  tubercles, 
Ex.  Ice  plant,  Mesembryanthemum  crystallinum, 

7.  SCABROUS,  (scabe-r)   rough    to   the  touch,  from 
any  little  rigid  inequalities.     Ex.  Centaurea  nigra. 

8.  BRISTLY,  (hispidus.)    Ex.  Borage,  JBorago  qffi- 
cinalis. 

9.  HAIRY,  (hirtus  or  pilosus.*)     Ex.  Common  Cin- 
quefoil,  Potentilla  simplex. 

10.  DOWNY^  (tonientosus)  very  soft  to  the    touch 
from  soft  feeble  hairs  so  interlaced   with  each   other 
that  each  hair  connot  be  separately  distinguished. 

1 1.  SHAGGY,  (yiUosus^)  covered  >vith  long  soft  hairs. 

12.  WOOLLY,  (lanatus.*)    Ex.  Common  Mullein,  Ver- 
bascum  Thapsus. 

13.  HOARY,  (incanus)  appearing  as  if  frosted.     Ex. 
"Wormwood,  Artemisia  absinthium,  and  Mriplex portulac- 
oides  ;  in   the  former  case  from  close  silky  hairs,  in 
the  latter  from  a  kind  of  scaly  mealiness. 

14.  MEALY,  (glamcus)  clothed  with   fine  sea-green 
mealiness  which  easily  rubs  off.      Ex.  Common  Black 
Raspberry,  lliibus  occidentalis. 

15.  STRIATED,  (striatus)  marked  with  fine  parallel 
longitudinal  lines.     Ex.  Conium  maculatum. 

16.  FURROWED,   (sulcatus)  lines  somewhat  deeper 
and  broader  than  the  last.    Ex.  Hogweed,  Chenopodium 
album. 

}  7.  SPOTTED,  (maculatusJ)  Ex.  Hemlock,  Conium 
maculatum. 

The  spines  and  prickles  of  the  stem  will  be  described 
under  Arms  of  plants. 


SCAPE.  15 

VII.  Consistence, 

1.  SOLID,  (solidus)  of  an  uniform  solid  substance. 

2.  MEDULLARY,   (inanis   or  medullosus)  containing 
pith,  a  spongy  substance  in  the  centre.      Ex.  Elder, 
Sambucus. 

3.  HOLLOW,  (cavus  or  Jistulosns.')     Ex.  Hemlock, 
Conium  maculatum. 

Observation.  Plants  destitute  of  a  stem  are  called  STEMIESS,  (ac- 
antes.)  Ex.  Early  Anemone,  Anemone  hepatica*  Dandelion. 

2.  Culm. 

CULM,  (cidnws.)  PI.  2,  fig.  6.  The  proper  trunk 
of  the  grasses,  which  elevates  the  leaves,  flower,  and 
fruit. — LinncKiis. 

The  Culm  is  denominated 

1.  WITHOUT  KNOTS,  (enodis.}  Ex.  Common  Rushes. 
Bulrush,  Juncus  effusus. 

2.  JOINTED,  (firticulatus)  interrupted  by  joints  or 
knots  from  space  to  space,  as  in  most  of  the  grasses. 

3.  GENICULATE,  (geniculatus^   bent  like  the  knee. 
Ex.  Floating  Foxtail  grass,  Mopecurus  geniculatus. 

Observation.  1.  When  a  culm  takes  a  curved  direction,  it  usu- 
ally inclines  to  bend  at  the  joints  only,  and  thus  become  geniculate. 

2.  Several  of  the  terms  applied  to  the  stem,  (caulis)  are  occa- 
sionally applied  also  to  the  culm,  such  as  ASCENDING,  EHP.CT,  SOL- 
ID, HOLLOW,  ROUND,  ANOULAR,  ROUGH,  SMOOTH,  &c. 

3  The  number  of  angles  in  the  culm  sometimes  affords  a  mark 
to  discriminate  the  species,  as  in  the  genus  Eriocaulon  . — Milne. 

S.  Scape. 

SCAPE,  (scapus.)  PL  2,  fig.  7.  A  Stalk.  A  spe- 
cies of  trunk  which  springs  from  the  root  and  bears  the 
flower  and  fruit,  but  not  the  leaves.  Ex.  Dandelion, 
Leontodon,  and  Marsh  Rosemary,  Statice  limonium.  In 
the  former  the  stalk  is  simple  and  single  flowered  ;  in 
the  latter,  subdivided  and  many  flowered. 


16  TRUNKS. 

The  Scape  is  termed 

1.  SPIRAL,  (spiralisS)     Ex.  Valisneria  spiralis. 

2.  SCALY,  (squamosus*')    Ex.  Tussilago  farfara. 

Observation.  1.  Several  of  the  terms  defined  under  the  stems, 
(caw/;*, );ire  occasionally  applied  also  to  the  Scape  as  well  as  to  the 
Culm. 

2.  Plants  furnished  with  a  Scape  come  under  the  head  of  STEM- 
LK69  plants,  (acaules*}     Thus  the  Daffodil,  Dandelion.,  and  many  of 
the  Violets  are  stemless  plants. 

3.  Linnaeus  has  observed,  that    "  a  Scape  (scafnis)  is  on!y  a  spe- 
cies of  pedunculus."      Should  the  term  scapits   be  abandoned,  Pe- 
duncuhts  radiealis,  a  RADICAL  PEDUNCLE,  should  be  substituted. 

4.  Peduncle. 

PEDUNCLE,  (pedunadus)  Flower  stalk.  A  spe- 
cies of  trunk  bearing  the  flower  and  fruit,  but  not  the 
leaves. 

I.  Composition. 

1.  SIMPLE,  (simplex)  without  division  and  bearing 
only  one  flower.      Ex.   Three-coloured  Violet,   Viola 
tricolor. 

2.  COMPOUND,  (compositus)  having  divisions.      Ex. 
Pea. 

3.  COMMOK,  (communis)  not  dividing,  but  bearing 
many  sessile  flowers  assembled.      Ex.  Catkins,  as  of 
the  Alder,  Willow,  &c. 

4.  PARTIAL,   (partialis)  the  ultimate  division  of  a 
common    peduncle   immediately   connected    with  the 
flower  ;  sometimes  called  PEDICEL,  (yedicellus.} 

II.  Insertion  on  the  Plant. 

1.  CAULINE,  (caulinus)  growing  out  of  the  main 
stem.     Ex.  Indian  shot,  Canna  Indica. 

2.  RAMOSE,  (rameiis)  growing  out  of  a  main  branch. 

3.  AXILLARY,  (axillaru)  growing  from  the  angle 
made  by  the  leaf  and  stem,  or  the  branch   and  stem. 
Ex.  Chickweed,  Stdlaria  media. 


FLOWER-STALK.  A' 

4.  EXTRA-AXILLARY,  (exira-axillaris)  placed  near 
the  axilla. 

5.  OPPOSITE  THE  LEAF,  (pppositifolius.') 

6.  BETWEEN  THE  LEAVES,  (internodis)  proceeding 
from  the  intermediate  part  of  a  branch  between  two 
leaves. 

Observation.     A  mode  of  insertion  very  rare. 

7.  TERMINAL,  (terminalis)  terminating  a  stem   or 
branch. 

8.  LATERAL,  (lateralis}  situated  on  the  side  of  a  stem 
or  branch. 

9.  SOLITARY,  (solitarius)  either  single  on  a  plant  or 
only  one  in  the  same  place. 

10.  CLUSTERED,  (aggregatus)   when  several  grow 
together. 

11.  SCATTERED,  (sparsi}  dispersed  irregularly  over 
the  plant.     Ex.  Ranunculus  scelleratus. 

III.  Number  of  Flowers. 

1.  ONE-FLOWERED,  (unWorus.') 

2.  TWO-FLOWERED,  (blflorus.) 

3.  THREE-FLOWERED,  (triftorus.) 

4.  MANY-FLOWERED,  (multiflorus.) 

Reference.  For  the  different  modes  in  which  flowers  are  borne 
and  connected  on  their  footstalks,  see  Inflorescence. 

Observation.  When  there  is  no  peduncle,  the  flower  is  said  to 
be  SESSILE,  (sessilis) 

IV.  Direction. 

1.  FLACCID,  (flaccidus)  so  weak  andfee.ble  as  to  hang 
down  by  the  weight  of  the  flower  it  supports. 

2.  DROOPING  (cernnus)  bent  at  the  top  so  that  tl*e 
flower  is  inclined  to  one  side  or  towards  the  earth,  and 
cannot  be  placed  erect  on   account   of  the  curvature. 
Ex.  Annual  Sunflower. 

3.  FLEXUOUS,  (flexuoms)  making  angles  to  the  right 
and  left.    Ex,  Mrajlexuosa* 


1&  TRUNKS. 

V.  Form. 

Besides  being  occasionally  ROUND,  ANGULAR,  &c* 
the  peduncle  is  termed 

1.  FILIFORM,  (Jiliformis)  thread  shaped,  when  it  is 
of  slender  structure  like  a  thread. 

2.  ATTENUATED,  (atteuuatus)  diminishing  insensi- 
bly in  thickness  from  the  base  to  the  summit. 

3.  lNCRAssATED,(mcrassato)  thickening  at  the  sum- 
mit ;  opposed  to  the  last.     Ex.  Annual  Sunflower,  Hell- 
anthus  animus. 

VI.  Length. 

1.  SHORT,    (ftrms)    very  little    shorter    than   the 
flower. 

2.  VERY  SHORT,  (brevissiinus)  much  shorter  than  the 
flower. 

3.  EQUAL,  (inediocris)  of  the  length  of  the  flower. 

4.  LONG,  (longus)  somewhat  longer  than  the  flower. 

5.  VERY  LONG,  (longissimus)   more   than  twice  the 
length  of  the  flower. — Thornton. 

Observation.  1.  Linnaeus  very  rarely  admits  ar.y  other  mensura- 
tion than  that  arising-  from  the  respective  length*  and  breadth  of 
the  parts  of  a  plant  compared  with  each  other  ;  of  which  the  above 
is  an  example. 

2.  Instead  of  using  terms  like  the  above,  which  would  be  liable 
to  mislead,  authors  express  themselves  more  fully  thus — Peduncle 
shorter  than  the  flower — as  loner  as  the  flower — longer  than  the  flower 
— ttoice  as  long  as  the  flower,  &c. 

5.  Petiole. 

PETIOLE,  (petidus)  Leaf-stalk  or  Foot-stalk.  A 
species  of  trunk  bearing  the  leaf  only. 

Observation.  1.  The  peduncle  and  petiole  were  called  by  Lin- 
nscus  partial  trunks,  feeing"  placed  upon  the  general  or  universal 
trunk,  which  proceeds  immediately  from  the  root. 

2.  The  petiole  is  commonly  channelled  on  its  upper  side.  The 
channel  ends  in  a  concavity  at  the  base  on  the  side  next  the  stem, 
"#lnch  is  termed  the  AXILLA. 


19 

I.  Composition. 

1.  SIMPLE,  (simplex^)  without  divisions. 

2.  COMPOUND,  (compositus)  when  a  common  petiole 
gives  origin  to  several  PARTIAL  PETIOLES,  which  either 
support  leaflets  immediately,  or  divide  into  other  par- 
tial   petioles,      Ex.   Locust,  Robinia,   arid    Sumach. 
Ehus. 

II.  Appendages. 

1.  BEARING  TENDRILS,  (drrAi/br.)      Ex.  Common 
Pea. 

2.  WINGED,  (alatus)  furnished  on  each  side  with  a 
leafy  appendage.      Ex.  Dwarf  Sumach,  Ehus  copalli- 
num. 

III.  Form. 

1.  ROUND,  (teres.)    Ex.  Common  Hollyhock. 

2.  HALF-ROUND,  (semiteres.)      Ex.  Yellow   Water 
Lily,  JVjjrtipKcetl  advena. 

3.  FLATTENED,  (compressus.)    Ex.  Lombardy  Pop- 
lar, Populus  dilatata. 

4.  CLUB-SHAPED,    (clavatus)    growing    gradually 
thicker  towards  the  top.     Ex.  Cacalia  suaveolens. 

IV.  Direction. 

1.  ERECT,  (eredus]  nearly  perpendicular. 

2.  SPREADING,    (patens")    forming  an  acute   angle 
with  the  stem. 

3.  RECURVED,  (recurvatus)  curved  downward. 

4.  CLIMBING,  (scandens)  performing  the  office  of  a 
tendril.     Ex.  Virgin's  bower,  Clematis  Virginiana. 

Observation.  1.  In  length,  the  petiole  is  compared  with  the  leaf, 
as  the  peduncle  is  with  the  flower.  See  p.  18. 

2.  Several  terms,  defined  under  caul-is,  are  occasionally  applica- 
ble to  the  leafstalk. 

6.  Frond. 

FROND,  (/rons.)  PL  2,  fig.  8.  A  species  of  trunk  in 
which  the  stem,  leaf,  and  fructification  are  united  as  in 
the  Ferns,  Filices. 


20  BTJDS. 

7.  Stipe. 

STIPE,  (stipes)  is  applied  to  the  stern  or  leafless 
part  supporting  a  frond,  pi.' 2,  fig.  8,  a.;  to  the  stalk  of 
a  fungus,  pi.  2,  fig.  9,  a. ;  and  to  the  slender  thread 
which  in  many  of  the  compound  flowers,  such  as  the 
Dandelion,  elevates  the  hairy  or  feathery  crown  (pap- 
pus,) with  which  the  seeds  are  furnished,  and  connects 
with  the  seed. 


CHAP.  II. 

BUDS. 

THE  BUD,  (gemma)  contains  the  essential  parts  of 
a  plant,  covered  by  scales  in  order  to  protect  the  tender 
rudiments  enclosed  during  the  winter. 

Observation.  1.  The  scales  of  buds  envelop  each  other  closely 
and  enfold  the  infant  plant  or  branch.  Externally  they  have  often 
an  additional  guard  of  gum,  resin  or  woolliness  against  wet  and 
cold. 

2.  That  buds  contain  all  that  is  essential  to  constitute  a'perfect 
plant  is  proved  beyond  a  doubt  by  producing  plants  from   buds. 
This  is  done  either  by  placing  them  immediately  in  the  earth  or  by 
introducing  them  into    the  bark  of  another  plant,  which  last  is 
termed  inoculation.      So  analogous  are  buds  to  seeds  that  some 
plants,  besides  seeds,   produce  a  set  of  buds  or  bulbs,  which  are 
destined  to  propagate  the  plant  by  falling  into  the  earth  and  vege- 
tating.    "  Plants  considered  in  analogy  to  animals  may  properly 
enough  be  reckoned  both  oviparous  and  viviparous.     Seeds  are  the 
vegetable  eggs  ;  buds,  living  infant  plants  which  renew  their  spe- 
cies as  certainly  as  the  seed.*' — Milne, 

3.  Buds,  together  with  bulbous  roots,  which  are  buds  under 
ground,  constitute  what  Linnaeus  termed  HIBERNACXE,  (hybernacu- 
lum)  that  is,  the  winter-quarters  of  plants.     See  observation,  p.  8. 

FOLIATION,  (foliatio.) 

By  foliation  or  vernation  (vernatio*)  Linnseus  ex- 
presses the  curious  manner  in  which  the  leaves  are 
folded  or  wrapped  up  in  the  buds. 

*  Vernatio,  the  terra  employed  by  Linuxus  in  bis  later  works  instead 

Milne. 


FOLIATION.  21 

Observation.  1.  Foliation,  which  is  in  fact  the  structure  of  the 
leaf  bud,  is  not  only  curious,  but  affords  a  means  of  distinguishing 
plants  in  the  dormant  season. 

2.  Buds  are  various  in  their  forms  and  structure,  but  very  uni- 
form in  the  same  species  or  even  genus. 

Various  modes  of  Foliation. 

1.  CONVOLUTE  BUD,  (gemma  convoluta.)  PL  3,  fig,  1. 
Rolled  together.  Ex.  Many  of  the  grasses. 

Q.  INVOLUTE,  (involuta.)  PL  3,  fig*.  3.  Lateral 
margins  roiled  spirally  inwards  on  both  sides.  Ex. 
Violet. 

3.  REVOLUTE,   (reroduta.}     PL  3,  fig.  3.     Lateral 
margins  rolled  spirally  backwards  on  both  sides.     Ex. 
Coltsfoot,  Tussitago,  and  some  species  of  Willow. 

4.  CONDUPLICATE,  (conduplicata.)      PI.    3,   fig.  4. 
One  side  of  the  leaves  doubled  upon  the  other  at   the 
mid  rib.     Ex.  Beech  and  Rose. 

5.  OBVOIAJTE,  (obvoluta.}    PL  3,  fig.  5.    "When  their 
respective  margins   alternately  embrace  the  straight 
margin  of  the  opposite  side.     Ex.  Pink,  Dianthus. 

6.  EQ.UITANT,  (equitantia.}     PL  3,  fig,  6.     Riding ; 
when  the  sides  of  the  leaves  lie  parallel  and  approach 
in  such  a  manner  as  that  the  outer  embrace  the  inner. 
Ex.  Iris,  Acorus,  Sedge-grass,  Carex. 

7.  PLICATE,  (plicata.]    PL  3,  fig.  7.    Plaited,  fold- 
ed up  like  a  fan.     Ex.  Maple,  Alder,  Mallow. 

8.  IMBRICATE,  (imbricata^     PL  3,  fig.  8.      Laid 
over  one  another  like  tiles.     Ex.  Campanula. 

9.  RECXINATE,  (reclinata.)      Leaf  reflected   down- 
wards toward  the  petiole.   Ex.  Monk's-hood,  Aconitum. 

10.  CIRCINAL,  (cirdnalia.)      PL  3,  fig.  9.     Rolled 
spirally  downwards.     Ex.  Ferns,  Filices. 

Contents  of  the  Bud. 

1.  FLOWER-BE AKING  BUD,  (gemma  Jlonfera)  a  bud 
containing  the  rudiments  of  flowers. 

2.  LEAF  BEARING,  (foliifera)  containing  rudiments 
of  leaves  only. 


22  LEAVES. 

3.  LEAF  AND  FLOWER  BEARING,  (foliifera  et  Jlori- 
fera)  containing  the  rudiments  both  of  flowers  and 
leaves. 

Observation.  Buds  containing  flowers  can  in  general  be  distin- 
guished by  their  form,  being  thicker  and  less  pointed  than  those 
containing  leaves  only. 


CHAP.  III. 

LEAVES,  (folia.} 

THE  LEAF,  (foliuni)  is  an  organ  of  vegetables  of 
an  expanded  form, presenting  a  much  greater  surface  to 
the  atmosphere  than  all  the  other  parts  of  the  plant  to- 
gether. 

Observation.  Leaves  are  not  merely  ornamental  to  plants  ;  they 
are  essential  organs  of  vegetation,  performing  the  functions  of 
respiration,  perspiration,  and  absorption. 

Reference.  For  the  anatomy  and  functions  of  leaves,  see  anato- 
my and  physioktgy. 

Observation.  The  us^s  of  leaves  in  the  arts,  in  medicine  and 
as  food  for  animals  ;  the  infinite  variety  and  elegance  of  their 
forms,  their  wonderful  vascular  structure,  and  their  importance  to 
the  plant  that  bears  them,  are  subjects  highly  deserving  atten- 
tion, but  they  are  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  chapter.— Smith. 

LEAFLESS  PLANTS,  (planter  aphyllcK)  are  those  in 
which  the  leaves  are  wanting,  the  surface  of  the  stem 
performing  the  necessary  functions.  Ex.  Glass  wort* 
salicorniu. 

The  different  situations,  insertions,  forms  and  sur- 
faces of  leaves,  which  are  next  to  he  explained,  are  of 
very  great  use  in  systematical  botany. 

I.  Situation  and  position  of  Leaves. 

1.  RADICAL  LEAVES,  (folia  radicalia)  are  suck  as 
spring  fr-Mti  the  root.     Ex.  Dandelion. 

2.  CAULINE,  (caulind)  stem  leaves,  grow  on  the  stem. 

3.  RAMEAL,  (ramea)  branch  leaves,  sometimes  dif- 
fer from  those  of  the  main  stem,  and  tUeri  require  to  be 


LEAVES.  23 

distinguished  from  them.     Ex.  Malampyrum  arvense. 

4.  ALTERNATE,  (alterna.)  PL  4,%.  1.  Stand  soli- 
tary on  the  stem  or  branches  spreading  in  different  di- 
rections.    Ex.  Borage,  Borago. 

5.  SCATTERED,  (sparsa.}     PL  4,  fig.  2.     Situated 
irregular!/,  without  any  apparent  order.     Ex.  Lilium 
bubiferum. 

6.  OPPOSITE,  (opposita.)  PL  4,  fig.  3.  Arising  from 
two  opposite  points  on  the  same  stem.     Ex,  Lilac,  8y- 
ringa  vulgar  Is. 

7.  CLUSTERED,  (conferta.)    PL  4,  fig.  4.  Crowded 
together.     Ex.  Trientalis  Europwa. 

8  BINATE,  (biua}  only  two  upon  a  plant  or  stem. 
Ex.  Enjthronmin  Jlmericanum,  and  Lily  of  the  valley, 
Convaliaria  majalis. 

9.  TERNATE,  (terna)  three  together. 

10.  QtfATERtfATE,  (quaterna)  four  together. 

11.  QUINATE,  (quina)  five  together. 

12.  VERTICILLATE,   (vertidttata.)      PL  4,  fig.   5. 
Whorled  ;  is  used  to  express  several  leaves  growing  in 
a  circle  round  the  stem,  without  any  reference  to  their 
precise  number.      Ex.  Wild  Lilies,  Lilium  Canadense 
and  L.  Philadelphia* in. 

13.  FASCICULATE,  (fosciculata.)  PL  4,  fig.  6.  Tuft- 
ed or  bundled  together.     Ex.  Pine,  Pinus. 

14.  IMBRICATE,  (imbricata.)     PL  4,  fig.  7.     Lying 
one  over  another  like  tiles  upon  a  house. 

15.  DECUSSATE,  (decussata.)     PL  4,  fig.  8.^    Cross- 
ing each  other  alternately  in  pairs.      Ex.  Motherwort, 
Leonnrus  Cardiaca. 

16.  TWO-RANKED,  (disticha.)    PL  4,  fig.  9.    Spread- 
ing in  two  directions,  and  yet  not  regularly  opposite  at 
their  insertion.     Ex.  Hemlock,  Pinus  Canadeusis. 

17.  UNILATERAL,  (secunda.)     PL  4,  fig.  10,    j^ean- 
ing  all  to  one  side.      Ex.  Many  flowered,  Solomon's 
seal,  Convaliaria  multiflora. 

18.  APPRESSED,  (adpressa}  when  the  leaf  takes  a 


£4  LEAVES. 

direction  parallel  to  the  stem,  and  touches  it  in  its  whole 
direction.     Ex.  Xvranthemnm  sesamoides. 

1 9.  VERTICAL,  (verticcdia')  perpendicular ;  both  sides 
at  right  angles  with  the  horizon,  but  not  quite  in  con- 
tact with  the  stern.    Ex.  Lactnca  Scariota. 

20.  ERECT,  (eretfa)  forming:  a  very  acute  angle  with 
the  stem.     Ex.  Red  Cedar,  Juniperus  Virginiana. 

21.  SPREADING,  (patentid)  forming  a    moderately 
acute  angle  with  the  stem  or  branch. 

22.  HORIZONTAL,     (horizontalia     or    patentissimd) 
spreading  in  the  greatest  possible  degree. 

23.  RECLINATE,    (redinatd)   inclining    downward. 
Ex.  Motherwort,  Leonurus  Cardiaca. 

24.  RECURVED,  (recurva  or  reflex(i)  curved  back- 
ward. 

25.  INFLEXED,  (incuroa  or  inftexa)  curved  inward. 

26.  OBLIQUE,  (obliqua)  twisted,  so  that  o*he  part  of 
each  leaf  is  vertical,  the  other  horizontal.      Ex.   Frit- 
tiUaria  obliqua. 

27.  RESUPIWATE,  (resupinatd)  reversed ;  when  the 
upper  surface  is  turned  downward. 

28.  DEPRESSED,  (depressa)  radical  leaves  pressed 
close  to  the  ground.     Ex.  Plantago  media. 

29.  NATANT,  (natantid)  floating  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.      Ex.  Water  Lilies,  NympkcRa  advena  and 
odorata. 

SO.  SUBMERSED,  (submersa,  demersa,  or  immersa} 
sunk ;  plunged  under  water.     Ex.  Potamogeton. 
31.  EMERGED,  (emersd)  raised  above  the  water. 

II.  Insertion. 

By  insertion  is  meant  the  mode  in  which  one  part 
of  a  plant  is  connected  with  another. 

1.  FETIOLATE  LEAVES,   (folia  petiolatd)  leaves  on 
footstalks  ;  are  such  as  are  furnished  with  that  organ, 
whether  long  or  short,  simple  or  compound. 

2.  PELTATE,  (pdtata.)      PL  4,  fig.  11.     When  the 
footstalk  is  inserted  into  the  centre  of  the  leaf,  like  the 


LEAVES.  23 

arm  of  a  man  holding  a  shield.     Ex.  Nasturtium,  Tra- 
pceolum  inajns, 

3.  SESSILE,   (sessilia)  are  sucli   as  spring  immedi- 
ately from  the  stein,  branch  or  root,  witnout  any  foot- 
stalk. 

4.  AMPLE  XTCATJL,  (cnnplexicaulia^)     PL  4,  fig.  19. 
Clasping  the  stem  with  their  hase.    Ex.  Several  of  the 
Asters,  as  Aster  N0v&-Jbigli&  and  A.  amplexicaulis. 

5.  CONNATE,  (connata.}     PL  4,  fig.  13.    United  at 
their  base.     Ex.  Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  Lonicera  sein- 
pervivens. 

6.  PERFOLTATE,  (pcrfoliata.)  PL  4,  fig.  14.    When 
the  stem  runs  through  the  leaf.      Ex.    Uviilaria  2)erf0" 
liala. 

Observation.  The  veins  or  nerves  of  a  leaf  will  generally  deter- 
mine whether  it  be  a  single  perfoliate  leaf,  as  in  Uvularia  perfolhi- 
ta  :  or  double  and  connate,  as  occurs  in  different  degrees  in  the 
Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  J<onicera  scripervivens,  in  Fever  wort,  Trl™ 
osteum  perfoliatum,  and  in  Rudbeckia  amplexifolia,  where  the  con- 
nexion is  slig-ht.  —  Prof.  Bigelotv. 


7.  VjLGTKAST^'oaginantia^  PL  4,  h'g.  15.  Sheath- 
ing the  stem  or  each  other.     Ex.  Most  of  the  grasses. 
Wheat,  Triticum. 

8.  EquiTANT,   (eqnilantia.)      PL  4,  fig.  16.     Dis- 
posed in  two  opposite  rows,  and  clasping  each  other  by 
their  compressed  base.     Ex.  Flenr-de-luce,  Iris. 

9.  DECUKRENT,  (decnrrentia.^  PL  4,  fig.  17.  Run- 
ning down  the  stem   or  branch  in  a  leafy  border  or 
wing.    Ex.  Many  of  the  Thistles.   Mullein,  Verbascmn 
thapsus. 

10.  FLOWER-BE  \UING,  (flori/era.)  PL  4,  fig.  18. 
When  flowers  grow  out  of  the  disk  or  margin  of  the 
leaf.  Ex.  Ruscuv  aculeatus* 

Leaves  considered  with  respect  to  their  form  are 
either  simple  or  compound. 


26  LEAVES. 

Simple  Leaves. 

A  SIMPLE  LEAF,  (folium  simplex^)  is  one  whose  foot- 
stalk is  terminated  by  a  single  expansion.  See  pi.  5. 

Observation.  Whose  divisions  however  deep  do  not  reach  the 
mid-rib.  The  mid-rib  of  a  leaf  is  the  principal  prolongation  of  the 
foot-stalk,  which  usually  runs  longitudinally  through  the  middle 
of  it. 

Simple  leaves  are  either 

UNDIVIDED,  (Integra}  having  no  divisions  or  lobes. 
Ex.  Grasses  ;  or 

LOBED,  (lobata)  divided  into  segments.  Ex.  Cranes- 
bill,  Geranium,  and  Crowfoot,  Ranunculus. 

Simple  leaves  are  described  by  their  form,  surface,  £c. 

Reference.  For  the  definition  of  a  compound  leaf,  see  sec- 
tion VIII. 

III.  Form. 

1.  ORBICULAR  LEAF,  (folium  orbiculalum.*)  PI.   5, 
fig.  1.    A  circular  leaf  $    having  its  length  arid  breadth 
equal. 

2.  ROUNDISH,  (subrotundum^)     PI.   5,  fig.  2.     Ap- 
proaching to  the  circular  form.      Ex.  lloundleaved 
Wintergreen,  Pyrola  rotundifolia. 

S.  OVATE,  (orrchwi.)  PL  5,  fig.  S.     Egg-shaped  ; 
the  hase  round  and  broader  than  the  extremity. 

Observation.     A  very  common  form  of  leaves. 

4.  OBOVATE,  (obmatum.}     PI.  5,  fig.  4.      Ovate, 
with  the  broad  end  uppermost.     Ex.  Clethra  aln'tfolia. 

5.  ELLIPTICAL,  (ellipticum.}     PI.  5,  fig.  5.    Oval  ; 
of  the  form  of  an  ellipsis,  longer  than  broad,  with  the 
curve  of  both  ends  equal.     Ex.   Solomon's  Seal,   Con- 
vailaria. 

6.  OBLONG,  (oblongwri)  three  or  four  times  longer 
than  broad. 

Observation.  This  term  is  used  with  great  latitude,  and  serves 
chiefly  in  a  character  to  contrast  a  leaf  which  has  a  variable,  or 
not  a  very  decided  form.,  with  others  that  are  precisely  round, 
ovate,  linear,  &c. 


LEAVES. 


r.  SPATTOATE,  (spatulatiim.}  PI.  5,  %•  $•  OF  a 
roundish  figure,  tapering  into  an  oblong  base.  Ex. 
Marsh  rosemary,  Statice  Caroliniana. 

8.  WEDGE-SHAPED,    (cunciforme.^)    PI.   5,  fig.  8. 
Broad  and  abrupt  at  the  summit  and  tapering  down  to  the 
base.     Ex.  Purslane,  Portidacca  olemcea. 

9.  LANCEOLATE,  (lanceolatumS)    PL  5,  fig.  7*    Of  a 
narrow  oblong  form  tapering  towards  each  end.      Ex. 
Field  Plantain,  Mantago  lanceolata,  and  many  Willows. 

Observation.     A  very  common  form. 

10.  LINEAR,  (lineareS)     PI.  5,  fig.  9.     Narrow  with 
parallel  sides.     Ex.  Most  of  the  grasses. 

11.  ACEEOSE,  (oceroswm.)    PI.  5,  fig.  10.     Needle- 
shaped  ;  linear  and  evergreen,  generally  acute  and  rig- 
ed.     Ex.  Pine,  Fir,  and  Juniper. 

12.  TRIANGULAR,   (triangulare.}      PL    5,   fig.   11. 
Having  three  prominent  angles,  without  any  reference 
to  their  measurement  or  direction.      Ex.  Striped  Ma- 
ple, Acer  striatum. 

13.  QUADRANGULAR,  (quadrangulare.)  PI.  5,  fig.  12. 
With  four  angles.      Ex.  Tulip- Tree,  Liriodendron  tuii- 
pifera. 

14.  QUINQJJ ANGULAR,  (quinquangulareS)     PI.  5,  fig. 
13,     With  five  angles. 

15.  DELTOID,  (iielt aides.')     PI.  5,  fig.  14.      Shaped 
like  the  Greek  letter  A,  Delta. 

Observation.  Trowel-shaped,  ha.ving-  three  angles,  of  which  the 
terminal  one  is  much  farther  removed  from  the  base  than  the  late- 
ral one.— Smith. 

16.  RHOMBOID,  (rhomheum.}     PL  5,  fig.  15.     Dia- 
mond-shaped.    Ex.  Purple  Trillium,  Trillium  erectum. 

17.  RENIFORM,  (raijf/orae.)      PI.  5,  fig.  16.     Kid- 
ney-shaped ;  a  broad  roundish  leaf,  whose  base  is  hol- 
lowed out.  Ex.  Canada  Snake-root,  Asamm  Canadense. 

18.  CORDATE,  (cordalum.^     PI.  5,  fig.  17.     Heart- 
shaped  ;  ovate,  hollowed  out  at  the  base,     Ex.    Sun- 
flower, and  many  Vio^rts* 


28  J/KAVE-s. 

39.  LUNATE,  (lunatuwj  PL  5,  fig.  18.  Crescent- 
shaped  ;  like  a  half-moon,  whether  the  points  are  di- 
rected towards  the  stalk  or  from  it.  Ex,  Passiftora 
Janata. 

20.  SAGITTATE,  (sagitlatumS)     PL  5,  fig.  19.     Ar- 
row-shaped; like  the  head  of  an  arrow.      Ex.  Arrow- 
head, Sagittaria  sagittifolia. 

21.  HASTATE,  (liastatum.}      PL  5,  fig.  20.     Hal- 
bert-shaped;  triangular,  hollowed  out  at  the  base  and 
sides,  but  with  spreading  lobes.     Ex.  Sheep   Sorrel, 
Eitmex  acetosdla,  and  Bitter-sweet,  Salanum  dulcamara. 

22.  PANDURIEORM,  (jpanduriforme*)     PL  5,  fig.  21. 
Fiddle-shaped;  oblong,  broad  at  the  two   extremities 
and  contracted  in  the  middle.     Ex.  Some  of  the  leaves 
of  Various-leaved  Aster, -Aster  diver sifoiius. 

23.  RUNCINATB,    (runcinatum.)       PL   5,    fig.    22. 
Lion-toothed  ;  cut  into  several  transverse   acute  seg- 
ments, pointing  backward,     Ex.  Dandelion,  Leontodon 
taraxacum. 

24.  LYRATE,  (lyratum.)      PL  5,  fig.  23.     Lyre- 
sha]>ed  ;  cut  into  several  transverse  segments,  gradually 
larger  toward   the  extremity   of   the  leaf,    which  is 
rounded.     Ex.  Water  Avens,  Geum  Rirale. 

9,5.  CLEFT  or  CLOVEN,  (jfisswwi.)  PL  5,  fig.  24U 
When  tiie  margins  of  the  fissures  and  segments  are 
•straight. 

Observation.  JBifdum,  two-cleft  ;  trifiJitm,  three- cleft  ;  muhi- 
Jhlnm,  many- cleft,  &c.  express  the  number  of  segment*. 

26.  LOBED,  (lobatum.}     PL  5,  fig.  25.     When  the 
margins  of  the   segments  are   rounded.      Ex.  Early 
Anemone,  Anemone  liepatica. 

Observation.  JBilobatum,  two-lobed ;  trilobatwn,  three-lobed, 
-SvC.  according-  to  the  number  of  lobes. 

27.  STNUATED,  (sinuatnm^      PL  6,  fig.  1.      Cut 
Into  rounded  or  wide  openings.     Ex.  Oak. 

£8.  PARTED,  ( partitumj     PL  fi,  fig.   2.      Deeply 


JLEAVES. 

divided  nearly  to  the  base.     Ex.  Spotted  Geranium, 
Geranium  maculatum. 

Observation.  Bipartitum,  two-parted;  tripartitum,  three-part- 
ed ;  multipartitum,  many  parted,  according  to  the  number  of  di- 
visions. 

29.  LACINIATED  or  JAGGED,  (laciniatum.)     PL  6, 
fig.  3.     Cut  into  numerous  irregular  portions. 

Observation.  1  Incisum  and  Dissectum,  cut,  are  nearly  synony- 
mous with  the  last. — Smith. 

2.  It  is  remarked  by  Linnxus,  that  aquatic  plants  have  their 
lower,  and  mountainous  ones  their  upper,  leaves  most  divided,  by 
which  they  better  resist  the  action  of  the  stream  in  one  case,  and 
of  the  wind  in  the  other. 

30.  PALMATE,  (palinatum.)     PL  6,  fig.  4.      Hand- 
shaped  ;  cut  into  several  oblong,  nearly  equal  segments, 
about  half  way  or  rather  more  toward    the  base,  leav- 
ing an  entire  space  like  the  palm  of  the  hand.     Ex. 
Sweet-gum,  Liquidamber  styracifolia. 

31.  PINNATIFID,    (piniiatitidiim.^)      PL   6,  fig.   5* 
Cut  transversely  into  several  oblong  parallel  segments* 

Observation.     Cut,  but  not  to  the  mid-rib. 

32.  BIPINNATIFID,  fbipirmatijiduin.*)      PL  6,  fig.  6. 
Doubly  pinnatifid  ;  cut  into  segments  as  in  the  last, 
and  the  segments  cut  again.     Ex.  Roman  Wormwood, 
Ambrosia  datiur,  and  paniculata. 

33.  PECTINATE,  (pectinatum.)      PL  6,  fig.  7.     A 
pinnatified  leaf,  whose  segments  are  remarkably  nar- 
row like  the  teeth  of  a  comb. 

34.  UNEQUAL,  (inwquale.)     PI.  6,  fig.  8.     When  the 
two  halves  of  a  leaf  are  unequal  in  dimensions  and  their 
bases  not  parallel. 

IV.  Termination. 

1.  TRUNCATED  XEAF,  (folium  truncatum.)  PL  5, 
fig.  12.  Has  the  extremity  cut  off,  as  it  were,  bv  a 
transverse  line.  Ex.  Tulip-tree,  Leriakudron  feiltm- 
f&ra. 


so 


IJEAVES. 


2.  PREMORSE,  (prcemorsum.*)  PI.  6,  fig.  9.  Jagged- 
pointed;  bitten  off,  very  blunt  with  various  irregular 
notches. 

3.  RETUSE,  (retusum.*)    PL  6,  fig.  10.     Ending  in 
a  broad  shallow  notch.     Ex.  Rumex  digynus. 

4.  EMARGiNATE^emar^naftttti.) P1.6,fig.ll.  Hav- 
ing a  small  acute  notch  at  the  summit. 

5.  OBTUSE,  (pbtusum.)  PI.  5,  fig.  2.    Blunt ;    end- 
ing in  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

6.  ACUTE,  (acutum.')     PI.  6,  fig.  17.  Sharp;  end- 
ing in  an  acute  angle. 

Observation.     A  very  common  form. 

7.  ACUMINATE,   (acuminatum.}      PL   6,   fig.    12. 
Pointed  ;  having  a  taper  or  awl-shaped  point.  Ex.  Sea 
Club-rush,  Scirpus  maritimns. 

8.  BLUNT,  WITH  A  SMALT,  POINT,  (obtusum  cum 
acumine.')     PL  6,  fig.    13.      Ex.    Marsh   Rosemary? 
Stalice  limonium. 

Observation.  The  following"  term,  (mucronate,)  is  sometimes 
applied  to  a  leaf  of  this  description. 

9*  MUCRONATE,  (mucronatum  or  cuspidatum.}    PI, 

t>,  fig.  14.       Sharp-pointed  ;  tipped  with  a  rigid  spine, 

10.  CIRROSE,  (cirrosM-m.)  PL  6,  fig.  15.  Tendrilled. 

V.  Margins. 

1.  ENTIRE  LEAF,  (folium  intcgerrwium^)      PL  5y 
fig.  1.     Ex.  The  various  species  of  Lilies. 

Observation.  This  term  is  opposed  to  all  kinds  of  teeth  notches 
jr  incisions.  It  regards  solely  the  margin  of  a  leaf,  whereas  undi- 
vided integrum  respects  its  whole  shape,  and  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  margin.  English  writers  who  translate  the  one  entire)  and 
the  other  very  entire,  are  therefore  incorrect. — Smith. 

2.  SPINOUS,  (spiwosiim.)  PL  6,  fig.  16.    Beset  with 
prickles.     Ex.  Thistles. 

3.  UNARMED,  (mmne.)  is  opposed  to  spinous, 

4.  CILTATE,  (cUiatum.)    PL  6,  fig.  17.     Fringed  ; 
bordered  with  soft  parallel  hairs.      Beech  tree,  Fagus 

Jerruginea,  and  Xylosteum  dliahim. 


LEAVES.  31 

5.  CARTILAGINOUS,   Qprtilaginum)  hard  and  hor- 
ny.    Ex.  Saxifraga  callosa*. 

6.  DENTATE,  (dentatumS)     PL  6,  fig.  18.     Tooth- 
ed $  beset  with  projecting,  horizontal,  rather  distant 
teeth  of  its  own  substance.    Ex.  Arrow  wood,  Vibur- 
num dentatum. 

7.  SERRATE,  (serratumS)      PI.  6,  fig.  19.     When 
the  teeth  are  sharp  and  resemble  those  of  a  saw,  point- 
ing toward  the  extremity  of  the  leaf.     Ex.  Rose. 

Observation.     Examples  of  this  are  frequent. 

8.  DOUBLY  SERRATE,  (duplicate  serratuiri)  having 
a  series  of  smaller  serratures  intermixed  with  the  large. 
Ex.  Black  Birch,  Betula  lenta. 

9.  MINUTELY  SERRATE,  (serrulatuni)  is  used  when 
the  teeth  are  very  fine. 

10.  CREMATE,  (crenatum.)      PI.  6,  fig.  20.      When 
the  teeth  are  rounded  and  not  directed  toward  either 
end  of  the  leaf.     Ground-Ivy,  Glechoma  hederacea. 

11.  JAGGED,  (erosumS)     PI.  7,  fig.  1.      Irregularly 
cut  or  notched,  especially  when  otherwise  divided  be- 
sides.    Ex.  Hogweed,  Chenopodium  riride. 

12.  REPAND,  (repandum^      PI.  7,  fig.   2.     Wavy; 
bordered  with  numerous  minute  angles  and  small  seg- 
ments of  circles  alternately. 

13.  GLANDULAR,  (glandulosum.)      Ex.  Bay -leaved 
Willow,  Salix  pentandria. 

14.  RE  VOLUTE,  (revolutum)   when  the    margin    is 
turned  or  rolled  backward.     Ex.  Kalmia  glauca. 

15.  INVOLUTE,  (involutum)  the  reverse  of  the  pre- 
ceding. 

16.  CONDUPLICATE,    (coiiduplicaiurn)   folded    when 
the  margins  are  brought  together  in  a  parallel  direc- 
tion. 

VI.  Surface. 

Terms  expressive  of  different  kinds  of  surface,  ap- 
plying equally  to  the  leaf,  and  to  the  stem,  have  been 


32  LEAVES. 

already  explained,  p.  14.     To  these  may  be  added  the 
following,  chiefly  appropriated  to  leaves. 

1.  DOTTED,  (punctatum)  full  of  small  points  hol- 
low and  transparent,  or  having  vesicles  containing  in 
them  an  essential  oil.    Ex.  St.  John's- wort,  Bijpericum 
perjbratum. 

2.  WRINKLED,    (rugosum)    when  the    veins    are 
tighter  than  the  surface  between  them,  causing  the  lat- 
ter to  swell  into  little  inequalities.  Ex.  Various  species 
of  Sage,  Salvia. 

5.  BLISTER Y,  (bullatnm)  is  only  a  greater  degree 
of  the  last.     Ex.  Cabbage,  Bra&sica  oleracea. 

4.  PLAITED,    (plitatum.)    PL  7,  fig.  3.      When 
the   disk  of  the  leaf,  especially  toward  the  margin, 
Is  acutely  folded  up  and  down.     Ex.   Veratrum  viride. 

Observation.    Folded  like  a  fan,  distinguished   from  waved  by 
the  folds  being  angular. — J\lartyn. 

5.  UNDULATE,  (undulatwn.)  PI.  7,  fig.  4.  Waved  ; 
\vhen  the  disk  near  the  margin  is  waved  obtusely  up 
and  down. 

6.  CURLED,    (cri  spurn.)      PL  7,  fig.  5.     When  the 
border  of  the   leaf  becomes    more  expanded  than  the 
disk,  so  an  to  grow  elegantly  curled  and  twisted.     Ex. 
Jllafaa  critpa 

7.  CONCAVE,    (concavum)    hollow ;     depressed  in 
the  middle,  owing  to  a  tightness  in  the  border. 

8  CONVEX,  (wuwx-n1)  opposed  to  the  last. 

9.  VEINY,   (vcnosum)      Pi.   7,  fig.  6.     When  the 
vessels  by  which  the  leaf  is  nourished  are  branched 
and  subdivided,  and  more  or  less  prominent,  forming  a 
net- work  on  either  or  both  its  surfaces.     Ex.  Common 
Thorn,  Crahegus,  and  Pear,  Pynis» 

10.  NERVED,  (nervosum  or  costatum.)     PI.  7,  fig.  7. 
Ribbed  ;  when  they   extend  in  simple  lines  from  the 
base  to  the  point.     Ex.  Ladies'-s!;pper,  Cypripcdinm. 

It.  THKEK-WEHVED,  (trinerre.)  PI.  7,  fig  8.  Three 
ribbed  $   is  applied  to  a  leaf  that  lias  three  ribs,  all  die- 


LEAVES.  &> 

tinct,  from  the  very  base,  as  well  as  unconnected  with 
the  margin. 

12.  BASE-THREE-NERVED,  (basi  trinerve.)      PL  7, 
%.   !.     Triply-ribbed  at  the  base  ;  is  when  the  base  is 
cut  away  close  to  the  lateral  ribs.      Ex,   Burdock, 
dirctium  tappa,  and  Sunflower,  Helianthus  annuus. 

13.  TRIPLY-NERVED,  (triplinerve.)      PL  7,  fig.  10. 
Triply-ribbed  ;  when   a  pair  of  large  ribs  branch  off 
from  the  main  one  above  the  base. 

14.  COLOURED,    (coloratum)  expresses    any    colour 
in  a  leaf  besides  green. 

15.  VARIEGATED,      (variegalum)     is    applied     to 
leaves  which   become  irregularly  blotched  with  white 
or  yellow.     Ex.  Striped  Grass,  Jlrundo  colorata. 

16.  NAKED,    (wudum)    implies  that    the    leaf    is 
destitute  of  all  kinds  of  clothing  or  hairiness.     Ex. 
Orchis. 

VII.  Substance,  Configuration)  $*c. 

1.  CYLINDRICAL,  (teres.)     PI.  7,  fig.  11.     A  solid 
cylinder. 

2.  SEMICYLINDRICAL,  (semicylindriaceum.)      Flat 
on  one  side. 

3.  STIMULATE,  (subulatum?)  PL  7,  fig.  12.  Awl- 
shaped  ;  tapering  from  a  thick  base  to  a  point.  Ex. 
Saltwort,  Salsola  kali. 

4.  TUBULAR,  (tubulosurn)  hollow  within  like  a 
tube.  Ex.  Common  Onion,  Miimn  Cepa. 

o.  FLESHY,  (carnosum)  of  a  thick  pulpy  consist- 
ence, as  in  all  those  called  succulent  plants.  Ex.  Live- 
forever.  Sedum. 

6.  GIBBOUS,    (gibbnm)    swelling  on   one  side  or 
both  from  excessive  abundance  of  pulp. 

7.  COMPRESSED,  (compressiun)  flattened  laterally. 

8.  DEPRESSED,  (depressum)  flattened  vertically. 

9.  CHANNELLED,    (canalicufatum)  having   a  lon- 
gitudinal furrow,      Ex.  Sea  Plantain,  Plantago  mari- 
tima* 


S4  LEAVES. 

10.  CARINATE,  (carinatum)    keeled  \  when  the  back 
is  longitudinally  prominent. 

11.  ENSIFORM,  (  msijorme)  sword-shaped  ;  is  a  two- 
edged  leaf  tapering  to  a  point,  slightly  convex  on  both 
surfaces.     Ex.  Flag  or  Flower-de-luce,  Iris. 

12.  TWO-EDGED,  (anceps.)     Much  the  same  as  the 
last. 

IS.  SCIMITAR-SHAPED,  (acinaciforme.)  PI  7,  fig 
14.  Compressed,  with  one  thick  and  straight  edge, 
the  other  thin  and  curved.  Ex.  Mesembryanthemum 
acinaciforme. 

14.  HATCHET- SHAPED,  (dolabriforme.)      PL  7,  fig. 
13.     Compressed  with  a  very  prominent  dilated  keel, 
and  a  cylindrical  base.     Ex,  M.  dolabri/orme. 

15.  THREE-EDGED,  (trigonum.}  PL  7,  fig.  15,  Hav- 
ing three  longitudinal  sides  and  as  many  angles.      Ex. 
Mesembryanthemiim  delt tides. 

16*  THREE- s IDED,  (triquetrum)  differs  from  trigo- 
num  on  ly  in  being  used  by  Linnaeus  for  a  three-sided, 
awl-shaped  leaf.  Ex.  M.  emarginatum. 

17.  FOUR-ED GED,  (tefrag-orawn.)  PL  7,  fig.  16.    Hav- 
ing four  prominent  angles. 

18.  TONGUE-  SHAPED,  (lingulatum)  of  a  thick,  ob- 
long, blunt  figure,  generally  cartilaginous  at  the  edges. 
Ex.  Jhesembryanthemum  linguiforme. 

19.  MEMBRANOUS,  (membranaceum)  of  a  thin,  pli- 
able texture.     Ex.  Rubus  odoratus. 

20.  LEATHERY,    (coriaceum)     thick,    tough,     and 
somewhat  rigid.      Ex.  Magnolia  grandifora,  and  Hy- 
drangea horiensis. 

21.  EVERGREEN,  tsempervirens)  permanent  through 
one,  two,  or  more  winters,  so  that  the  branches  are 
never  stripped.     Ex.  Pine,  Pinus9  and  Laurel,  Kahnia 
latifdla. 

22.  DECIDUOUS,    (deciduiim)  falling  off  at  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  as  in  most  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of 
our  northern  climate. 

23.  ALIENATED,  (alienatum.)  PI.  7,  fig.  17.     When 
tb#  first  leaves  of  a  plant  give  place   to  others   totally 


LEAVES.  S5 

different  from  them  and  from  the  natural  habit  of  the 
genus*     Ex.  Many  of  the  Mimosce  of  New-Holland. 

24.  HOODED  (cucullatum.)  PL  8,  fig.  1.  When 
the  edges  meet  in  the  lower  part  and  expand  in  the  up- 
per. Ex.  Hooded  Violet,  Viola  cucullata,  and  Side- 
saddle Flower,  Sarracenia. 

Observation.  A  leaf  is  said  t6  be  hooded,  whether  the  edges 
unite  so  as  to  form  a  perfect  cavity  as  in  Saracenia  ;  or  whether 
they  simply  meet  without  cohering1,  as  in  Viola  cucullata.  —  Prof. 


25.  APPENDAGED,  (appendiculatum.)  PL  8,  fig.  2. 
Furnished  with  an  additional  organ  for  some  particular 
purpose  not  essential  to  the  leaf.  Ex.  Venus's  Fly- 
trap, Dioncea  mustipula. 

Observation,  Each  of  the  leaves  of  this  plant  is  furnished  with 
a  pair  of  armed  irritable  lobes,  which  close  upon  and  pierce  or 
imprison  insects  whenever  they  crawl  upon  it  ;  hence  the  name  of 
Venus's  Fly-trap. 

VIII.  Compound  Leaves. 

COMPOUND  :LE\VES,  (folia  composita)  consist  of 
two,  or  any  greater  number  of  leaflets  ;  (  foliola)  con- 
nected by  a  common  footstalk. 

Observation  1.  Any  part  is  denominated  common,  which  includes 
or  sustains  several  parts  similar  among  themselves. 

2.  These  leaflets  or  lobes  are,  themselves,  small,  simple  leaves, 
and  like  them  vary  in  form  according  to  distinctions    already   es- 
tablished .  —  Milne. 

3.  A  compound  leaf  is  distinguished  from  a  branch  by  this  cir- 
cumstance, that  the  leaflets  do  not  fall  off  alone,  but  are  accom- 
panied by  the  common  footstalk. 

1.  JOINTED  ;LEAF,  (folium  articulatum.)     PL  8,  fig. 
3.     Is  when  one  leaf  grows  out  of  the  summit  of  anoth- 
er with  a  sort  of  joint. 

2.  DIGITATE,  (digitotum.]    PL  8,  fig.  4.     Finger- 
ed ;  when  several  leaflets  proceed  from  the  summit  of  a 
common  footstalk.  Ex.  Common  Cinquefoil,  Potentilla 
simplex. 

3.  BIXATE,  (binatum.}     PI   8,  fig.  5.     Is  a  fingered 
leaf,  consisting  of  only  two  leaflets.     Ex.  Zigophylium. 


56  1.EAVES. 

4.  TEKNATE,  (ternatum.)    PL  8,  fig.  6.    Consists  of 
three  leaflets.     Ex.  Clover,  Trifolinni. 

5.  QUINATE,  (quinatum,)  PI.  8,  fig.  4.  Of  five  leaf- 
lets.    Ex.  Potentilta  simplex. 

6.  PINNATE,  (pmnatnm.)     PI.  8,  fig.  7.     When  the 
common  footstalk   bears  many  leaflets  on  each  side. 
It  is  of  several  kinds,  as  follows  : 

1.  With  an  odd  leaflet,  (cum  impart.)      PL  8,  fig.  7. 
Ex.  Rose,  Rosa  ;  Elder,  8ambncus  ;  Sumach,  Rhus. 

2.  With  a  tendril,  (cirrosum)     PL  8,  fig  8.     When 
furnished  with  a  tendril  in  place  of  the  odd  leaflet.  Ex, 
Pea,  Pisum. 

3.  Abruptly,  (abrupte.)      PL    8,  fig.   9.      Without 
either  a  terminal  leaflet  or  tendril.    Ex.  Common  Sen- 
sitive-plant, Mimosa  sensitiva. 

4.  Opposite,   (opposite,)    when  the  leaflets  are  op- 
posite in  pairs.     Ex.   Water  Par-snip,  Slum  augusii- 

falium.    Roses,  pi.  8,  fig.  7. 

5.  Alternately,  (alternatim.)     PL  8,  fig.  10.  When 
they  are  not  directly  opposite,  but  alternate. 

6.  Interruptedly  (interrupted     PL  8,  fig.  11.   When 
the  principal  leaflets  are  arranged  alternately,  with  an 
intermediate  series  of  smaller  ones.  PotentiUa  anserina. 

7.  Jointedly,  (articulate*)    with    apparent  joints  in 
the  common  footstalk. 

8.  Decurrently,   (decursive)    when  the  leaflets  are 
decurrent. 

9.  In  a  lyrate  manner,  (lyrato.)      PL   8,   fig.   12. 
Having  the  terminal  leaflet  the  largest,  and  the  rest 
gradually  smaller,  as   they   approach  the  base.     Ex. 
Avens,  Geum  rivale,  and  common  Turnip. 

10.  In  a  whorled  manner,  (vertidllate.)  PL  8, fig*  13. 
The  leaflets  cut  into  fine  divaricate  segments  embrac- 
ing the  footstalk.     Ex.  Slum.  verticUlatum. 

7.  AURICLED  LEAF,  (miYiculatum  folium)  is  a 
leaf  furnished  with  a  pair  of  leaflets  properly  distinct, 
but  occasionally  liable  to  be  joined  with  it. 


.LEAVES.  37 

8.  CONJUGATE,  (conjugatuni)  yoked ;  consists  of  on- 
ly a  pair  of  leaflets,  and  is  much  the  same  as  binate. 
Ex.  Zygophyllum. 

Observation.  Two-yoked,  (bijugum)  Three-yoked,  (trijugum,) 
Four-yoked,  (quadrijugum.)  Many-yoked,  (multijitgum,)  ^&c.  ex- 
press particular  numbers  of  pairs  of  leaflets,  and  are  used  for  that 
purpose  where  such  discrimination  is  requisite  for  specific  charac- 
ters, as  in  the  J\limos<e. 

The  following  terms  are  applied  to  the  degree  of 
composition ;  without  any  reference  to  the  mode. 

1.  COMPOUND,  (compo&tum.)    PI.  8,  fig.  7.    Sim- 
ply compound. 

2.  DECOMPOUND,   (decompositum.)      PL   9,   fig.   4. 
Douhly  compound. 

3.  SUPERDECOMPOUXD,  (supmdecompositum.)    PL  9, 
fig.  5.     Thrice  compound   or  more.      Ex.  Hemlock, 
Conium  inaculatum. 

Mode  and  degree  of  Composition. 

1.  BIGEMINATE,  (bigeminatum.')  PL  93  fig.  3.  Twice 
paired. 

2.  TERGEMINATE,     (tergeminatuni)     three     times 
paired. 

3.  BITERNATE,  (biternatum  )     PL  9,  fig.  1.    Twice 
ternate. 

4.  TRITERNATE,  (triternatum.')  PL  9,  fig.  2.  Thrice 
ternate. 

5.  BIPINNATE,  (bipinnatum.}  PL  9,  fig.  4.     Douhly 
pinnate. 

6.  TRIPINSTATE,  (tripinnatum.')  PL  95fig.  5.  Triply 
pinnate. 

7.  FED  ATE,  (pedatum^     PL  9,  fig.  6,      Is  a  ternate 
leaf,  with  its  lateral  leaflets  compounded  in  their  fore- 
part.    Ex.  Viola  pedata. 

Observation.  1.  Leaves  are  so  wonderfully  diversified,  and  the 
transition  from  one  form  to  another  is  so  gradual,  that  specimens 
occur,  not  only  to  answer  the  preceding  terms,  which  have  been 
assumed  to  describe  them,  but  also  of  every  intermediate  descrip 

4 


38  APPENDAGES. 

tion.  On  this  account  two  terms  are  occasionally  combined  to 
express  a  form  between  them,  as  Ovate-lanceolate,  (ovato-lanceo- 
latum,)  lanceolate,  inclining1  to  ovate  ;  or  Heart-ovate,  (cordato- 
ovatis,)  as  in  ground  Laurel,  Epigtea  repens. 

When  shape  or  any  other  character  cannot  be  precisely  denned, 
sub  is  prefixed  to  the  term  used,  as  siibrotundum,  roundish  ;  sub- 
sessile •,  not  Destitute  of  a  footstalk.  By  the  judicious  use  of  such, 
means  all  necessary  precision  is  attained. 

2.  The  leaves  furnish  very  elegant  and  natural  marks  in  discrim- 
inating the  species  of  plants.  ^Numerous  specific  names,  as  well 
as  characters,  which  are  both  elegant  and  descriptive,  are  derived 
from  the  leaves,  as  Pyrola'rotundifoIia)'RQ\md  leaved  Wintergreen  ; 
Convallaria  bifolia,  Two-leaved  Convallaria ;  Jlster  cordifohus 
Heart-leaved  Aster. 


CHAP.  IV. 

APPENDAGES  TO  A  PLANT. 

THE  APPENDAGES  consist  of  the  appendages, 
properly  so  called,  the  arms,  the  supports,  and  the  pu- 
bescence or  covering  of  plants. 

I.  Appendages  to  the  Leaf  and  to  the  Flower. 

1.  STIPUXE,    (stipula.)     PI.  8,  fig.  7  &  8.  a.  a.     A 
leafy  appendage   to  the  proper  leaves,  or  to  the  foot- 
stalks.    Ex.  Rose,  Rosa  ;  Pea,  Pisum. 

Observation.  1.  It  is  commonly  situated  at  the  base  of  the  foot- 
stalk in  pairs,  as  it  is  in  the  above  examples,  and  is  extremely  dif- 
ferent in  different  plants. 

2  Some  stipules  fall  off  almost  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  expand- 
ed, which  is  the  case  with  the  Tulip-tree,  Liriodcndron  tuUpifera  ; 
in  general  they  last  as  long  as  the  leaves. 

3.  The  stipule  in  the  grasses  is  peculiar,  consisting  of  an  inter- 
nal white  membrane,  crowning  the  sheath  of  the  leaf  and  clasping 
the  culm. 

2,  BRACT,  (bractea.)     PI.  9,  fig,  7.   The  floral  leaf; 
a  leafy  appendage  to  the  flower  or  its  stalk,  differing  in 
shape  or  colour,   or  both   from  the   other  leaves  of  the 
plant.     Ex.   Lime-tree,  Tilea,  in  which  it  serves  as  a 
wing  to  the  seed. 


PUBESCENCE.  39 

II.  ARMS,  (arma.) 
Weapons  of  defence. 

1.  SPINE,  (spina.)     PI.  10,  fig,  1.   A  Thorn.     This 
proceeds,  not  from  the  bark,  but  from  the  wood  itself. 
Ex.  Thorn,  Cratwgus. 

Observation.     Sometimes  disappears  by  culture* 

2.  PRICKLE,  (aculeus.)     PL  10,  fig.  2.     Arises  from 
the  bark  only,   and  conies  off  with   it,  having  no  con- 
nexion with  the  wood.     Rose  and  Raspberry. 

Observation.     Does  not  disappear  by  culture. 

III.  SUPPORTS,  (fulcra.) 

1.  TENDRIX,  (cirrus.)  PL  8,  %.  8.  A  fibre,  in- 
tended to  support  weak  and  climbing  plants,  upon 
more  firm  and  sturdy  ones.  Ex.  Pea  and  Cucumber. 

Observation.  1.  The  tendrils  of  the  Creeper,  Vitis  quinquefolia, 
will  adhere  to  the  smoothest  flint. 

In  some  cases,  the  flower  and  leaf-stalks  perform  the  part  of 
tendrils,  by  clinging1  to  other  bodies  for  support,  as  the  leaf- 
stalks do  in  the  Virgin's-bovver,  Clematis  Virginiana. 

2.  Linnxus  applied  the  term  supports,  (fulcra)  to  all  the  va 
rious  kinds  of  appendages,  but  it  seems  not  to  apply  very  proper- 
ly to  any  of  them  except  the  tendril,  6cc. 

3,  The  prickles  of  the   Sweet-briar  Rose,  being  recurved  like 
hooks,  serve  as  supports  by  taking  hold  of  other  bodies. 

IV.  PUBESCENCE,  (pubes.} 

Glands,  hair,  &c.  which  are  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  plant. 

1.  GLAND,  (glandula)   a  little  tumour  discharging 
a  fluid.     Ex.  On  the  calyx  of  the  Moss  Rose.     Pt.  10, 
fig.  4,  a.      On  the  foot-stalks  of  the  Snow-ball,  Vibur- 
num opulus,  and  the  various  species  of  Passion-flower. 
PL  10,  fig.  3. 

2.  HAIR,  (pilus.)    PL  10,  fig.  6.      The  hairs  on 
plants  are  either  simple,  serving  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tection from  cold,  or  they  are  ducts,  discharging  a  fluid. 

Observation,  The  hairiness  of  plants  is  liable  to  disappear  by 
culture. 


4  0  INFLORESCENCE. 

CHAP.  V. 

INFLORESCENCE,^  (In^lorescentia.) 
INFLORESCENCE  is  a  term  used  by  Linn«us,to 
express  the  particular  manner  in  which  flowers  are  sit- 
uated upon  a  plant. 

Observation.  Those  who  wrote  before  Linn<eus  used  the  term 
modus  forendi,  or  manner  of  flowering1. 

Its  various  kinds  are 

1.  WHORL,  (verticettus.)      PI.   10,  fig.  7.     Flowers 
surrounding  the  stem   in  a  sort  of  ring  ;  though  they 
may  not  perhaps  he  inserted  on  all  sides  of  it,  but  mere- 
ly on  two  opposite  ones.      Ex,   Mint,   Jllentlia,  and 
Balm. 

2.  RACEME,  (racemus.)     PL  10,  fig.  8.     A  cluster. 
A  simple  raceme  consists  of  numerous,  rather  distant, 
flowers,  each  on  its  own  proper  stalk,  and  all  connect- 
ed by  one  common  stalk.     Ex.  A  bunch  of  Currants. 

Observation.     A  cluster  is  most  generally  pendulous  or  drooping*, 
and  the  flowers  all  expand  nearly  at  the  same  time. 

Compound  receme,  (racemus  compositus)  partial 
peduncles  divided.  Ex.  Solomon's  Seal,  Convattariu 

raccmoscu 

Observation.  By  partial  peduncle,  is  meant  the  proper  peduncle 
of  the  individual  flowers,  PL  10,  fig.  8,  a.  a.  in  opposition  to  the 
common  peduncley  b.  whiph  is  shared  equally  by  all  of  them. 


(aggregates)  several  gathered  together. 
Ex.  Ad(w  racemosa,  Black  Snake-root. 

Unilateral,  (unUaterulis)  one-sided  :  flowers  grow- 
ing altogether  from  one  side  of  the  common  peduncle. 

Secundous,  (secundus')  growing  out  from  more 
than  one  side,  but  bending  round  so  as  to  bring  the 
•flowers  all  to  one  side. 

*  The  ip.fioTescence  does  not  strictly  belong  under  the  head  of  Herbage,  hut  has 
*  to  this  place,  iu  as  much  as  it  depends  on  the  composition  and  situation  of 
tho  Trunks, 


INFLORESCENCE.  41 

3.  SPIKE,  (spica.}  PL  10,  fig.  9.  Bears  numerous 
flowers,  ranged  along  a  common  stalk,  without  any 
partial  stalks.  Ex.  An  ear  of  Wheat  $  Greater  Plan- 
tain, Plant  ago  major. 

Observation.  1.  A  mode  of  flowering  in  which  the  flowers  are 
ranged  alternately  upon  both  sides  of  a  simple  flower-stalk— 
Milne. 

2.  Some  latitude  is  allowed  to  this  difinition,  and  the  term  spike 
is  in  many  instances  applied  to  flowers,  which  are  not  entirely  with- 
out partial  peduncles. — Smith. 

3.  The  common  stalk  of  a  SPIKE  is  termed  RAOHIS,  from  its  re- 
semblance to  the  back-bone  of  an  animal. 

Compound  spike,  (spica  composita.)  In  a  compound 
spike  the  peduncle  is  divided. 

Spikelet,  (spiculd)  is  a  term  applied  exclusive- 
ly to  the  grasses  that  have  many  florets  in  one  calyx, 
such  florets  being  ranged  on  a  little  stalk  constituting 
the  spikelet,  which  little  stalk  is  a  part  of  the  flower 
itself  and  not  of  the  infloresence. — Smith. 

Observation. — These  little  groups  of  florets  in  one  calyx,  are 
termed  spikelets  whether  they  are  so  disposed  as  to  constitue  a 
spike  or  a  panicle. 

Interrupted  spike,  (spica  interrupta*)  In  an  inter- 
rupted or  whorled  spike,  the  flowers  are  in  separate 
groups.  Ex.  Mentha  spicata. 

One-rowed,  (secunda)  a  spike  whose  flowers  lean 
all  to  one  side. 

Two-rowed,  (disticha)  when  the  flowers  look  to 
both  sides  or  stand  two  ways. 

Spiral,  (spiralis)  twisted  like  »a  screw.  Ex.  La- 
dies' traces,  J\eottia  cernua. 

Observation,  A  spike  generally  gro^s  erect.  Its  mode  of  ex- 
pansion, is  much  more  progressive  than  that  of  the  raceme,  so  that 
a  long  period  elapses  between  the  fading  of  the  lowest  flowers  and 
the  opening  of  the  upper  ones. 

4.  CORYMB,  (corymbus.)  PI.  11,  fig.  i.  A  mode 
of  flowering,  in  which  the  lesser  or  partial  flower- 


42  INFLORESCENCE. 

stalks  are  produced  along  the  common  stalk,  are  of 
unequal  length,  the  lower  ones  being  longest,  and  all 
rise  nearly  to  the  same  height,  so  as  to  form  a  flat  and 
even  surface  at  top.  Ex.  Spircea  opulifolia,  and  Yar- 
row, JLchillta  millefolium. 

Observation.  A  spike,  whose  partial  stalks  are  gradually  longer 
as  they  stand  lower,  so  that  the  flowers  are  nearly  on  a  level. — 
Smith. 

Compound,  (compositus)  when  the  partial  stalks 
are  divided. 

5.  FASCICLE,  (fasciculus,}    PL  11,  fig.  2.     A  little 
bundle ;  flowers  on  little  stalks,  variously  inserted  arid 
subdivided,  collected  into  a  close  bundle,  level  at  top. 
Ex.  Sweet  William,  Dianthus  barbatus,  and  nianthus 
Jlrmeria. 

6.  HEAD,  (capitulum)  bears  the  flowers  sessile  in  a 
globular  form.      Ex.    Globe   Amarathus,   Gomphrena 
globosa.     High   Balm,  Monarda  didijma,  and  M.  Kal- 
miana. 

Observation.  In  the  capitulum,  the  flowers  of  the  summit  usu- 
ally  expand  first. 

7.  UMBEL,  (umbetta.)    PI.  11,  fig.  3.     A  mode  of 
flowering  in  which  the  several  flower-stalks  or  rays, 
proceed  from  one  common  centre,  like  the  braces  of  an 
umbrella. 

Observation.  The  flower-stalks  are  of  such  lengths  as  to  elevate 
the  flowers  either  to  a  concave,  a  level,  a  convex,  or  even  a  globose 
surface. 

Simple  umbel,  (uihbella  simplex)  when  each  flow- 
er-stalk terminates  immediately  in  a  flower.  Ex. 
gilk weed,  Asdepias  /§fynaca,andGinseng,Panwia?  quin- 
quefolium. 

Compound,  (composita.)  PI.  11,  fig.  3.  When  each 
of  the  flower-stalks,  instead  of  terminating  in  a  flower, 
jbears  another  umbel,  (umbellula,}  little  umbel. 

Observation.  1.  In  a  compound  umbel,  the  greater  umbel,  con- 
stituted of  the  larger  set  of  rays,  is  termed  U^IVEBSAL  or 


INFLORESCENCE.  43 

umbel  ;  and  the  lesser  umbels,  which  are  borne  by  the  rays  of  the 
greater,  are  termed  PARTIAL  umbels. 

2.  The  very  extensive  natural  order  of  plants  called  umbellife- 
rous, have  generally  compound  umbels.  Ex.  Carrot,  Parsnip, 
Parsley,  Hemlock,  &c. 

Radiate,  (radiata)  when  the  outer  petals  of  the 
external  flowers  are  larger  and  longer  than  the  rest. 

Floscular,  (Jlosculosa)  when  the  flowers  are  all 
alike  in  size. 

8.  CYME,  (ct/ma.)     PI.  11,  fig.  4.     A  mode  of  flow- 
ering, which  has  the  general  appearance  of  an  umbel, 
and  agrees  with  it  so  far,  that  its  common  stalks  all 
proceed  from  one  centre,  but  differs  from  it  in  having 
the  partial  stalks  variously  subdivided.      Ex*   Elder, 
Sambucus  niger,  and  Snowball,  Viburnum. 

9.  PANICLE,  (paniculaS)     PI.  11,  fig.  5.     Bears  the 
flowers   dispersed   upon  foot-stalks   variously  subdi- 
vided. 

Observation.  It  is  a  sort  of  branching  diffused  spike  composed 
of  a  number  of  small  spikes  which  are  attached  along  a  common 
footstalk.— Milne. 

Lax,  (diffusd)  when  the  stalks  are  distant.  Ex. 
London  pride,  Saxifraga  umbrosa9  and  Common  Oat. 

Divaricate,  (divaricata.)  Spreading ;  when  the  par- 
tial stalks  form  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  common 
peduncle.  Ex.  Brixa,  and  Red  Top,  Jlgrostis  vul- 
garis. 

Dense,  (coarctata)  when  the  foot-stalks  approach. 
Ex.  Phleum  paniculatum. 

One-sided,  (secunda)  leaning  one  way.  Ex.  Or- 
chard grass,  Dactylis  glomerata. 

10.  THYRSE,  (thyrsus.}     PL  11,  fig.  6.     A  panicle 
contracted  into  an  ovate  figure.      Ex.  Lilac,   Syringa 
vulgaris. 

Observation.  1.  In  the  thyrsus  the  inferior  peducles  extend 
horizontally,  whilst  the  upper  ones  are  nearly  upright. 


44  INFLORESCENCE, 

2.  Linnaeus  remarks  that  the  most  elegant  specific  characters  are 
taken  from  the  inflorescence.  Ex  The  Apple  and  Pear,  two  spe- 
cies of  the  same  genus,  Pyrus,  are  distinguished  thus  :  The  Ap- 
ple bears  can  umbel,  the  Pear  a  corymb. 

Reference.  The  insertion  of  simple  flower-stalks,  whether 
solitary,  cindered,  radical,  cauline,  axillary  9  lateral  or  terminal^  i* 
defined  under  PEDUNCLE,  page  16. 


PART  III. 


FRUCTIFICATION,  (fructificatio.) 

THE  FRUCTIFICATION  consists  of  the  FXOWEU 
and  FRUIT. 

The  fructification  is  a  temporary  part  of  vegetables, 
destined  for  the  reproduction  of  the  species,  terminating 
the  old  individual  and  begining  the  new. 

Observation.  The  fructification  is  an  essential  part  of  every 
vegetable.  Every  species  of  plants  produces  flower  and  fruit.  The 
seed  is  the  essence  of  the  fructification,  and  the  whole  use  of  the 
flower  is  to  serve  in  perfecting'  it. 

A  plant  may  be  propagated  by  roots,  layers,  offsets,  scions  and 
buds,  but  the  plants  thus  produced,  are  only  extensions  of  the 
same  individual,  and  retain  all  its  peculiarities.* 

Although  a  plant  may  thus  be  propagated  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent,  yet  it  appears  that  if  it  be  not  renewed  by  seed,  it  will 
sooner  or  later  become  extinct,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  expressed, 
will  run  out  ;  hence  we  infer  that  propagation  by  seed  is  the  oiily 
true  reproduction  of  plants. 

Linnseus  distinguishes  seven  parts  of  fructification, 
some  of  which  are  essential  to  the  very  nature  of  a 
flower  or  fruit,  others  not  so  indispensably  necessary, 
and  therefore  not  always  present. 

1.  CALYX,  (calyx.}     PI.    13,  fig.   1.     Flower-cup, 
generally  resembling  the  leaves  in  texture  and  colour, 
and  forming  the  outermost  part  of  the  flower.      This  is 
not  essential,  an&is  often  absent. 

Observation.     Commonly  called  the  green  leaves  of  the  flower. 

II.  Con  XLA,(coro7<i.)  Pi.  12, fig.  1. a,  a.  a.  The  more 
delicate  coloured  internal  leaf  or  leaves,  likewise  not 
essential. 

Observation.  1.  Commonly  called  the  Jiotoer  leaves. 

2.  PETAL  is  the  term  given  to  each  separate  leaf  of  the  corolla. 

'  This  is  exemplified  in  the  various  kinds  of  apples,  which  are  propagttted  by  en» 
grafting  and  inocculationt 


46  ITIUCTIFICATIOJV. 

III.  STAMEN,  (stamen.')     PI.  12,  fig.  5.     Common- 
ly consisting  of  a  thread-like  body,  bearing  a  sack  at 
top,  containing  a  coloured  dust,  placed  internally  in  re- 
spect to  the  corolla.     This  is  essential. 

IV.  PISTIL,  (pistoHum.)  PI.  12,  fig.  4.  In  the  centre 
of  the  flower,  consisting  of  the  rudiments  of  the  fruit, 
with  one  or  more   organs  attached  to  them,   and,   of 
course,  essential. 

V.  PERICARP,  (jpericarpinm.*)      PI.  14,  fig  6,7,  &c. 
The  seed- vessel,  of  a  pulpy,  woody  or  leathery  texture, 
enclosing  the  seeds,  but  wanting  in  many  plants. 

VI.  SEED,  (semen]    the  perfecting  of  which  is  the 
sole  end  of  all  the  other  parts  of  the  fructification. 

VII.  RECEPTACLE,  (receptaculnm.^)  PI.  12,  fig.  2,  a. 
The  basis  or   point   of  connexion  of  the  other  parts. 
This  must  necessarily  be  present  in  some  form  or  other. 

Observation.  Each  of  these  seven  parts  occurs  under  a  variety  of 
forms,  which  are  next  to  be  explained. 

I.  Calyx. 

THE  CALYX  or  external  covering  of  the  flower, 
when  present,  was  originally  divided  by  Linnaeus  into 
seven  kinds. 

Observation.  As  the  student  is  beginning  to  examine  flowers,  he 
should  be  reminded  that  all  DOUBLE  Flowers,  (  f lores  pleni,)  are 
imperfect.  Although  they  are  esteemed  in  the  gardens  as  beauti- 
ful, yet  they  are  unfit  for  botanical  illustration  and  have  been  em- 
phatically called  vegetable  monsters.  This  fullness  or  impletion  as 
it  is  termed,  of  flowers,  takes  place  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  but  the 
most  common,  is  by  the  conversion  of  the  stamens  into  petals. 

The  seeds  of  double  flowers  are  imperfect,  because  the  organs 
which  are  necessary  to  the  formation  of  perfect  seed,  are  oblite- 
rated. Impletion  is  caused  by  excess  of  nourishment,  and  is  prin- 
cipally the  result  of  art  occuring  almost  exclusively  among  culti- 
vated plants.  This  shews  us  that  deformity,  in  consequence  of 
luxury,  occurs  in  the  natural  as  well  as  in  the  moral  world. 

The  attention  of  the  young-  botanist  is  therefore  directed  to  the 
fields  and  woods  in  preference  to  the  garden.  The  cultivated  Rose, 
Pseony,  Double  Carnation,  See.  are  examples  of  double  flowers. 

1.  PERIANTH,  (perianthium.')  PL  13,  fig.  i.  A  ca- 
lyx which  is  contiguous  to,  and  makes  a  part  of  the 


CALYX.  47 

flower.  Ex.  The  five  green  leaves  which  encompass 
a  Rose,  including  their  urn-shaped  base.  The  tubular 
part  comprehending  the  scales  at  its  base  in  the  Pinks. 

1.  Number  of  Leaves. 

1.  Monophyllous  perianth,  (Perianthium  monophyl- 
luin)  when  it  consists  of  one  leaf. 

2.  Cleft,  (Jissuiri)  divided  down  not  exceeding  half 
way  to  the  base. 

S.  Parted,  (partituni)  divided  almost  to  the  base. 

4.  Two-leaved,   (diphyllum^  three-leaved,    (triphyl- 
lumi)  and  so  on,  according  to  the  number  of  leaves. 

5.  Polyphyllous,  (polyphijtlum)  many  leaved. 

2  Form. 

1.  Inflated,    (ventricosum)    swelled    or    distended. 
Ex.  Cucubalus  Behen. 

2.  Prismatic,  (prismaticum)  with  sharp,  and  some- 
what parallel    angles.      Ex.   Monkey  Flower,  Mi- 
mulus. 

3.  Imbricate  or  scaly,  (imbricatum  or  squamosum,) 
PI.  16,  fig.  3.      With  its  leaves  lying  one  over  another. 
Ex.  Thistle,  and  most  of  the  compound  flowers. 

4.  Squarrose,  (sqnarrosum)  when  the  leaflets  which 
compose  it  are  bent  back  at  the  points. 

6.  Ciliate,  (dliatum)   fringed    with  hairs  or  bris- 
tles on  the  margin. 

7.  Muricate,     (muricatuin)    set     with    short    stiff 
prickles. 

5.  Scariose,  (scanosum)  when  the  leaflets  are  hard, 
thin,  and  dry. 

8.  Spinous,    (spinosum)  thorny;     each  leaflet  tip- 
ped with  a  thorn,     Ex.  Thistles. 

9.  Turbinate,  (turbinatum)  having  the  figure  of  a 
top. 

10.  Calyculate,  (calijculatuni)  doubled;  when  one 
calyx  appears  to  be  enclosed  at  its  base  by  another. 
Ex.  Mallow,  Milva.' 


48  FRUCTIFICATION. 

Observation.  This  part  is  of  an  infinite  variety  of  forms,  in  dif- 
ferent genera,  being-  either  simple  or  compound,  regular  or  irreg- 
ular, equal  or  unequal.  In  some  instances  it  is  permanent  until 
the  fruit  is  ripe,  in  others  it  is  caducous,  falling  even  before  the 
flower  is  well  expanded. 

2.  The  Perianth  is  much  the  most  common  kind  of  calyx.  "  It 
is  the  calyx  properly  and  commonly  so  called,"  being  sometimes 
denominated  Calyx  by  way  of  eminence,  as  though  there  were  no 
others.  Tke  genus  Anemone,  for  example,  is  defined  to  be  "  with- 
out a  calyx,"  while  several  of  the  species  are  acknowledged  to 
have  that  kind  of  calyx  called  involucrum. 

2.  INVOLUCRE,  (involucrum.*)  PI.  11,  fig.  3.  A  calyx 
remote  from  the  flower.  Ex.  Hemlock,  Conium  macu- 
latum. 

Observation.    It  usually  accompanies  an  umbel. 

1.  Universal    involucre,    (involucrum     universale) 
when  the  leaflets  are  placed  at  the  origin  of  the  univer- 
sal umbel.  PI.  11,  fig.  3,  a. 

2.  Partial,  (pariiale)  when  the  leaflets  are  placed 
at  the  foot  of  a  partial  umbel.     PL  11,  fig.  3,  b. 

3.  Dimidiate,  (dimidiatuin)  placed  only  on  one  side. 
Not  going  all  round. 

Observation*  The  term  involucrum  has  been  applied  to  the  mem- 
branes covering  the  fructification  of  ferns*  Inducium  has  also 
been  applied  to  the  same. 

3.  AMENT,  (amentum.')   PL  13,  fig.  2,  3,  &4.    Cat- 
kin. A  species  of  calyx,  consisting  of  a  number  of  scales 
ranged  along  a  common  thread-like   receptacle,  each 
protecting  one  or  more  stamens  or  pistils.     Ex,  It  is 
the  most  common  calyx  of  the  forest  trees,  Oak,  Wal- 
nut, Chesnut,  Birch,  Alder,  Hazlcnut,  &c. 

Observation.     The  whole  forms  an  aggregate  flower. 

4.  SPATHE,  (spathn.}  PL  13,  fig.  5.     A  calyx  which 
bursts  longitudinally,  and  is  more  or  less  remote  from 
the  flower.     Ex.  Common  Blue  Flag,  Iris,  and  Nar- 
cissus. 

Observation.  In  many  cases  the  spatlie  is  of  a  membranous  tex- 
ture, and  withers  soon  after  the  flower  is  evolved. 


COROLLA.  49 

Observation,  The  spathe  sometimes  encloses  a  Spadix  or  elon* 
gated  receptacle  common  to  many  flowers.  PI.  13,  fig1.  5,  a.  &  b. 
Ex.  Indian  Turnip,  Arum, 

5.  GLUME,  (gluma.}    Husk.     PL  13,  fig.  7.     The 
calyx  of  the  grasses,  and  grass-like  plants  of  a  chaffy 
texture. 

Each  separate  piece  of  the  glume  is  termed  a  valve. 

Observation.  1.  To  the  glume  belongs  the  A.wxt(arista)  beard;  a 
bristle-shaped  appendage,  usually  spiral  or  twisted,  and  possess- 
ing the  property  of  being  moved  by  moisture.  This  is  what  gives 
motion  to  what  is  called  the  animated  oat. 

2  The  corolla  of  grasses  is  precisely  of  the  same  husky  nature 
of  their  calyx,  and  is  by  some  botanists  considered  as  such. 

6.  CALYPTRA,  (calyptra.}      PI.  13,  fig.  8.     The  ca- 
lyx of  the  mosses,  which  is  placed  overtime  unripe  fruit 
like  an  extinguisher  upon   a  candle,  but  is  soon  torn 
from  its  base  and  elevated  along  with  the  ripening  cap- 
sule. 

Observation,  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  considers  it  a  species  of  corolla. 
The  same  author  makes  another  species  of  calyx,  Perich«.'tium, 
a  scaly  sheath  investing  the  fertile  flower,  and  consequently  the 
base  of  the  fruit-stalk  in  some  mosses. 


7.  VOLVA,  Ootw.)  PI.  2,  fig.  9.  b.  Wrapper  or 
covering  of  the  Fungus  tribe.  It  first  envelops  the  head 
of  the  Fungus*  afterwards  bursts  and  appears  in  a  lacer- 
ated form  about  the  trunk. 

II.  Corolla. 

THE  COROLLA.  PI.  12,  fig.  1,a.  a.  a.  Com- 
monly called  the  flower-leaves,  consists  of  those  more 
delicate  and  dilated,  generally  more  coloured  leaves, 
\vhich  are  always  internal  with  respect  to  the  calyx, 
and  constitute  the  chief  heauty  of  the  flower.  Ex.  In 
the  Rose  the  corolla  is  red  and  fragrant  ;  in  the  Vio- 
let, purple  ;  in  tlrc  Primrose,  yellow. 

The  term  corolla  includes  two  parts,  tho   PETAI, 
(petalum)  and  the  NECTARY,  (nectarium^      The  Nec- 
tary is  to  he  treated  of  in  a  separate  section. 
5 


50  FRUCTIFICATION 

The  following  terms  are  applied  to  the  corolla. 
1.  Number  of  Petals. 

1.  MONOPETALQUS    COROLLA,    (corolla   monopetalaJ) 
PI.  13,  fig.  10.     Consisting  of  only  one  petal  or  leaf. 
Ex.  Thorn-Apple,  Datura  stramonium. 

Tube,  (tubus.)  PI.  is.  fig.  10,  a.  The  narrow,  hol- 
low part  of  a  monopeialous  corolla,  By  which  it  is  fix- 
ed to  the  receptacle. 

Limh,  (linibus.)  PL  13,  fig.  10.  6.  The  border,  or 
tipper  dilated  part. 

Orifice,  (jfrwo?)  jaws  or  throat ;  the  opening  of  the 
tube. 

Observation.  DJPETALOUS,  TRIPETJLIOUS,  TETIIAPETALOUS,  PEN- 
TAPETALOITS,  and  HEXAPETALocs,  are  terms  applied  according"  to  the 
number  of  petals. 

2.  POL YPETALOUS,  (polypetalo)  consisting  of  many 
petals.     Ex.  Water  Lily,  Nymphcea. 

Observation.  Linnaeus  uses  this  term  in  opposition  to  the  mo- 
nopetalous  corolla.  By  other  writers  it  is  usualty  put  down  for 
a  flower  consisting  of  more  than  six  petals.— Mar tyn. 

Claw,  (unguis.)  PL  13,  fig.  15,  a.  Is  the  narrow 
part  of  the  petal  of  a  polypetalous  corolla,  by  which 
it  is  attached  to  the  receptacle. 

Border,  (lamina.)  PL  IS,  fig.  15,  b.  The  upper 
spreading  part. 

Observation.  This  corresponds  to  the  Limb  of  a  monopetalous 
corolla,  and  the  Claw,  to  the  Tube. 

2.  Proportion  of  the  Petals. 

1.  REGULAR*  (regularis)  when  it  consists  of  petals 
equal  in  size  and  similar  in  form.     Ex.  Rose. 

2.  IRREGULAR,  (irregularis)  when  it  consists  of  ir- 
regular and  dissimilar  petals,  which  are  generally  ac- 
companied with  a  nectary.     Ex.  Larkspur  and  Violet. 

S.  EQUAL,  ((zqualis)  see  regular. 
4.  UNEQUAL,  (ffueguaH*)  when  some  segments  are 
smaller  than  others,     Ex.  Veronica. 


COROLLA.  51 

3.  Form. 

1.  BELL-SHAPED,   (campanulata.)      PL  13,  fig*   9. 
Without  a  tube,  expanding  immediately   from  the  re- 
ceptacle.    Ex.  Bell-flower,  Campanula. 

2.  FUNNEL-SHAPED,  (infundibuliformis.)  PL  13,  fig. 

10.  Tubular  at  bottom,  but  gradually  expanding  to- 
wards the  top.     Ex.  Thorn-Apple,  Datura. 

3.  SALVER-SHAPED,  (hypocrateriformis.)    PL  13,  fig* 

11.  Having  the  border  spread  out  horizontally  and 
placed  on  a  tube.     Ex.  Phlox. 

Observation.    Resembling  an  old-fashioned  salver. 

4.  WHEEL-SHAPED,  (rotata.)  PL  13,  fig.  12.    Aflat 
border  with  scarce  a  tube.     Ex.  Potatoe,  Solanum  tu- 
berosum,  and  Borage,  Borago. 

5.  RINGENT,  (ringens.')     PL  13,  fig.  13.     Irregular 
and  gaping  like  the  mouth  of  an  animal.     Ex.  Hyssop, 
Hyssopus. 

Observation.  A  ringent  flower  is  an  irregular  one-petaled  co- 
rolla, the  border  of  which  is  divided  into  two  parts,,  called  the  up- 
per and  the  lower  lips. 

The  following  terms  are  sometimes  applied  to  the 
parts  of  a  ringent  corolla. 

1.  Helmet,  (galeaj     PI.  13,  fig.  IS,  a.     The  upper 
lip. 

2.  Beard,  (&ar6a.)    PL  13,  fig.  13,  b.      The  lower 
lip. 

3.  Gape,  (rictus)  the  space  between  the  lips. 

4.  Throat  or  Jaws,  (faux)  the  opening  of  the  tube. 

5.  Palate,  (palatum)  the  prominent  swelling  in  the 
throat. 

6.  Neck,  (cottum)  the  upper  part  of  the  tube. 

6.  PERSONATE,  (personata.')  PL  13,  fig.  14.  Re- 
sembling the  ringent,  but  having  the  throat  closed  with 
a  permanent  swelling  called  the  palate,  (palatum.)  Ex. 
Toad-flax,  Antirrhinum. 

7*  TUBULAR,  (tubulata.)     PL  16,  fig.  1,  a.     Is  ap- 


52  TRtJCTIFICATIOtf. 

plied  to  the  floret  of  a  compound  flower,  when  it  ends 
in  a  tube,  the  border  being  five  cleft. 

£.  LIGULATE,  (ligutata.)  Strap-shaped.  PL  16,  fig. 
1,  &o  Also  a  floret  of  a  compound  flower  tubular  at  base, 
but  terminating  in  a  flat  strip  extending  out  at  one  side. 

9.  CRUCIFORM,  (cruciformis.^)  Cross-shaped.  PI. 
15,  fig.  15.  composed  of  four  equal  petals  placed  in 
the  form  of  a  cross.  Ex.  Cabbage,  Mustard,  Radish, 
and  Shepherd's  purse. 

10.  ROSACEOUS,  (rosacea)  consisting  of  five  petals  re- 
sembling arose.     Ex.  Strawberry. 

11.  LILIACEOUS,  (liliacea.')     PJ.  12,  fig.  1.     Resem- 
bling a  lily,  consisting  of  six  fleshy  petals.      Ex.  Dog- 
tooth Violet,  Erythronium  and  Tulip. 

12.  PAPILIONACEOUS,  (papilionacea.*)  Butterfly-shaped. 
PI.  14,  fig.  1  &  2.     Irregular  and  spreading,  some\vhat 
like  a  butterfly.     Ex.  Pea. 

The  various  petals  which  compose  such  a  flower  are 
distinguished  by  appropriate  names,  as 

1.  Banner,  (vexiium.*)    PI.  14,  fig.  2,  a.    The  large 
one  at  the  back. 

2.  Wings,  (cdce)  &.  b.  the  two  side  petals* 

3.  Keel,  (carina)  c.  consisting  of  one  or  two  petals 
, embracing  the  internal  organs,  and  resembling  a  boat 

in  form. 

IS.  INCOMPLETE,  (incompleta)  when  parts,  which 
analogy  would  lead, us  to  expect,  are  deficient.  Ex. 
Jlnwrpha,  a  papilionaceous  flower,  apparently  but  con- 
sisting of  the  banner  only. 

Observation.  It  is  remarkable  that  irregular  flowers  sometimes 
vary  to  regular  ones  in  the  very  same  plant,  as  in  JBignonto  radi- 
cans. 

4.  Duration. 

1.  CADUCOUS,  (cadnca)  falling  before  the  stamens. 

2.  DECIDUOUS,  (decidua)  falling  with  the  stamens. 

3.  MAIICESCENT,  (inarcescens}   withering,  without 
dropping. 

Observation.  1.  The  corolla  may  usually  be  distinguished  from 
the  calyx  by  the  fineness  of  its  texture  and  brilliancy  of  colour. 


(COROLLA.  53 

The  calyx  is  generally  of  a  rough  and  thick  texture  and  usually 
green  But  there  are  many  exceptions  ;  the  calyx  is  in  some 
cases  coloured,*  and  the  corolla  in  some  green.  Linnaeus  distin- 
guishes them  thus  ;  the  calyx  has  its  leaves  or  segments  opposite 
the  stamens,  while  the  petals  or  segments  of  the  corolla  alternate 
with  them. 

2.  The  corolla  is  wanting  in  many  plants,  and  therefore,  the 
office  it  performs,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  either  dispensed  with, 
being  not  essential,  or  is  performed  by  some  other  part, 

The  uses  of  this  very  conspicuous  part  have  not  yet  been  fully 
explained  ;  the  following  have  been  assigned  to  it. 

1.  To  protect  the  tender  and  important  parts  within,  especially 
ft  om  wet. 

2.  To  furnish  a  resting  place  for  insects  in  search  of  honey. 

3  To  submit  the  juices  to  the  action  of  air  and  light.  Dr.  Bar- 
win  calls  the  corolla,  the  lungs  of  the  stamens  and  pistils,  and  with 
great  probability,  for  it  abounds  with  air  vessels. 

St.  Pierre  supposes  the  corolla  to  regulate  the  sun's  influence 
on  the  fructification  of  the  plant,  by  reverberating  the  solar  rays 
upon  the  anthers  and  stigma ;  or,  in  some  instances,  by  sheltering 
them  from  too  intense  heat. 

NECTARY,  (nectarium)  is  the  part  of  the  corolla 
which  contains,  or  which  secretes  honey. 

Observation.  1.  Linnaeus  usually  called  every  supernumerary 
part  of  the  flower  Nectary,  from  analogy  only,  though  he  might 
not,  in  every  case,  be  able  to  prove  that  such  parts  produced 
honey, 

2.  The  nectary  is  confined  to  no  particular  part  of  the  flower, 
but  is  extremely  various  in  situation  as  well  as  form.  It  cannot, 
in  all  cases,  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  corolla. 

In  relation  to  the  corolla,  nectaries  are  of  four  kinds. 

1.  A  mere  cavity  in  the  corolla,  as  the  groove  in  the  claw  of  the 
petal   of  the  Lily,  and  the  cavity  near  the  base  of  the   petal  in 
Grown  Imperial. 

2.  A  process  of  the  corolla  itself,  as  the  scale  of  the  Ranuncu- 
lus and  the  spur  of  the  Violet. 

3.  An  organ  separate  entirely  from  the  petals,  but  of  a  similar 
texture  and  colour,  as  in  Columbine,  JLquilegia.     PI.  14.  fiq-.  3. 

4.  An  organ  separate  from  the  corolla  and  dissimilar  iiT struct- 
ure,  as  in  Jack-in-a-bush,  Nigella,  and  Monk's-hood,  Jlconitum.  Fig.  5. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  forms  of  the  nectary. 
1.  Spur  or  horn-shaped,  (nectarium  cornicnlaium*) 

*  Coloured  is  here  technically  used  for  any  other  colour  than  green. 


54  FRUCTIFICATION. 

PI.  14,  fig.  S.     Ex.  Larkspur,  Delphinium  and  Nas- 
turtium, Trapieolum. 

Q.  Cup-shaped.  PJ,  13,  fig.  6.     Ex.  Narcissus. 

3.  Scale,  (sqwama.)    Ex.  Buttercup,  Ranunculus. 

4.  Glandular,      (glandulosumS)       These     actually 
secrete  honey,  and   are   the   most   indubitable  of  all 
nectaries.     In  the  cruciform  plants,  as  Cabbage, Tur- 
nip, Mustard,  Radish,  Gilly-flower,.  &c.  they  are  four 
green  glands  at  the  base  of  the  stamens. 

Observation.  In  monopetalous  corollas,  the  tube  contains,  and 
probably  secretes  the  honey. 

General  observation.  1.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  sole  use  of 
the  honey  with  respect  to  the  plant  is  to  tempt  insects,  who,  in 
procuring1  it,  fertilize  the  flower  by  disturbing-  the  dust  of  the 
stamens,  and  even  carry  that  substance  from  the  barren  to  the  fer- 
tile blossoms,—  Smit  h. 

2.  In  discriminating  the  genera,  the  nectary  often  furnishes  the 
essential  character. 

III.  Stamens. 

STAMENS,  (stamina.')  PI.  12,  fig.  1,  b.  b.  b.  These 
are  situated  internally  as  it  respects  the  calyx  and 
corolla,  and  externally  with  respect  to  the  pistils.  They 
are  various  in  number  in  different  flowers,  from  one  to 
some  hundreds. 

The  Stamen  commonly  consists  of  two  parts. 

1.  FILAMENT,  (fiiamentum.^  PI.  12, fig.  3,  b.;  and 

2.  ANTHER,   (anthera)  a,   which  is  elevated   upon 
the  filament. 

The  filament  is  sometimes  wanting,  when  the  anther 
is  termed  Sessile,  (sessilis.) 

The  ANTHER  is  generally  of  a  membranous  tex- 
ture, consisting  of  two  cells  or  cavities  bursting  longitu^ 
finally  at  their  outer  edges,  as  in  the  Lily-  In  the  Po- 
tatoe,  in  the  Kalmia,  and  some  others,  it  opens  by  pores 
at  the  summit. 

The  POLLEN  is  a  powder  or  dust,  which  is  contained 
by  the  anther  and  discharged  chiefly  in  warm  dry 
weather,  when  the  coat  of  the  anther  contracts  and 


PISTILS.  55 


bursts.  Each  grain  of  the  pollen  is  commonly  a  membra- 
nous bag,  round  or  angular,  rough  or  smooth,  which  re- 
mains entire  till  it  meets  with  moisture,  being  contrary 
in  this  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  anther  ;  then  it  burst 
with  great  force,  discharging  a  most  subtle  vapour. 

Observation.  The  stamens  are  changed  to  petals  in  double 
flowers,  and^rendered  useless,  as  in  Piony.  They  are  often  oblit- 
erated by  excessive  nourishment,  as  in  the  Snow-ball  or  Guelder 
Rose,  Viburnum  Opulus. 

IV.  Pistils. 

PISTILS,  (pistUla.)  These  are  situated  within  the 
stamens  in  the  centre  of  the  flower.  Like  the  stamens 
they  vary  in  number  in  different  flowers  from  one,  to 
hundreds. 

Each  pistil,  PL  12,  fig.  4,  consists  of  three  parts. 

1.  GERMEN,  (germen)  c9  the  rudiment  of  the  fruit 
and  seed. 

Observation*     The  Germen  is  termed 

SUPF.RIOUR,  (superum)  when  it  is  above  the  calyx  and  corolla, 
as  in  the  Strawberry  and  Raspberry. 

INFERIOUR,  (jnferum)  when  it  is  below  them,  as  in  the  Apple  and 
Pear.  The  situation  of  the  calyx  and  corolla  is  the  opposite  of  that 
of  the  germen,  being  INFERIOUR  when  the  germen  is  SVPERIOUR,  and 
when  it  is  INFERIOUR. 


2.  STYLE,  (stylus)  b.    This  is   often   wanting,  and 
serves  merely  to  elevate  the  third  part,  the  stigma. 

3.  STIGMA,   (stigma)  a,  the  top  of  the  pistil  which 
receives  the  pollen  from  the  anthers. 

This  is  always  present.  Its  shape  is  various,  either 
simple,  scarcely  more  than  a  point;  or  capitate,  forming 
a  little  round  head  ;  or  variously  lobed.  Sometimes 
hollow  and  gaping,  more  especially  when  the  flower  is 
in  its  highest  perfection,  very  generally  downy,  and 
always  more  or  less  moist,  with  a  peculiar  viscid  fluid, 
which  in  some  plants  is  so  copious  as  to  form  a  large 
drop,  though  never  big  enough  to  fall  to  the  ground. 


56  FRUCTIFICATION. 

Functions  of  the  Stamens  and  Pistils* 

These  parts  contribute  to  the  perfecting  of  the  seed 
in  the  following  manner. 

After  the  flower  is  expanded  the  anther  hursts  in 
dry  weather  and  discharges  the  pollen,  the  particles  of 
which,  come  in  contact  with  the  stigma,  and  meeting 
with  the  viscid  moisture  with  which  this  part  is  cover- 
ed, explode  and  discharge  their  Contents,  which  are  said 
to  be  a  subtle  vapour. 

It  is  probable  that  the  contents  of  the  pollen  are  ab- 
sorbed by  the  stigma  and  transmitted  to  the  rudiments 
of  the  seeds  in  the  germen. 

This  contact  of  the  pollen  with  the  stigma  seems  to 
be  the  great  object  of  the  flower,  by  which  it  renders 
the  seed  perfect  and  capable  of  vegetating  ;  and  no 
seed  is  perfect  or  will  grow,  unless  it  has  taken  place. 

The  stamens  and  pistils,  or  more  particularly,  the 
anther,  stigma  and  geriften,  are  indispensable  to  the  per- 
formance of  this  important  function.*  All  other  parts 
may  be,  and  occasionally  are,  wanting. 

Observation.  The  corolla  first  attracted  the  attention  of  botan- 
ists, and  is  considered  by  the  vulgar  the  most  important  part,  but 
the  stamens  and  pistils  are  essentially  the  flower,  and  constitute 
one  in  effect  without  any  other  part.  They  are  presumed  to  be  es- 
sential to  all  plants. 

Linnesus  clearly  established  these  doctrines,  and  for- 
tunately fixed  upon  the  stamens  and  pistils,  organs 
necessarily  universally  present,  as  the  foundation  of 
his  first  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the  classes 
and  orders. 

Situation  of  the  Stamens  and  Pistils. 
he  stamens  and  pistils  are  situated  together  in  the 
same  flower,  as  in  the  Lily  and  most  plants ;  or  in  sep- 
arate flowers  on   the  same  plant,  as  Indian  Corn,  Zea 

*  Mare's  tail,  Hippuris9  an  exotic  plant,  has  a  flower  of  the  most  simple  structure, 
having  only  one  stamen  and  one  pistil,  without  any  calyx  or  corolla. 


PERICARP.  5f 

Mays  ;  Cucumber,  Cucumis  ;  or  in  separate  flowers 
on  separate  plants,  as  in  the  Willow. 

This  gives  rise  to  the  following  distinctions  of 
flowers* 

1.  BARREN    BLOWERS,     flowers    having    stamens 
only. 

Observation,  1.  Called  BARREN  because  they  produce  no  seed. 
2.  Sometimes  called  STAMEN-HEARING  orSxAMEXiFEROus, 

2.  FERTILE,  having  pistils  only. 

Observation.  !•  Galled  FERTILE  because  they  bear  seed. 
2.  Sometimes  called  PISTIL-BEARI^GF  PISTILIFEROUS. 

3.  PERFECT,   furnished    with   both    stamens    and 
pistils. 

Observation.  1.  Called  PERFECT  be'cause  they  contain  both  the 
rudiments  of  the  seeds,  and  all  that  ^accessary  to  perfect  them. 

2.  On  account  of  the  separation  of  tht-  stamens  and  pistils  in 
the  barren  and  fertile  flowers,  they  have  been  termed  SEPARATED 
FLOWERS  ;  and  on  account  of  their  union  in  perfect  ones,  they  have 
been  denominated  UNITED  FLOWERS. 

V.  Pericarp. 

PERICARP,  (pericarpium)  the  seed  vessel ;  which 
is  formed  by  the  germen  enlarged. 

Observation.  It  is  not  an  essential  part,  the  seeds  being-  fre- 
quently naked  and  guarded  only  Jby  the  calyx,  as  in  Motherwort, 
LeonuriM.  The  use  of  the  seed  vessel  is  to  protect  the  seeds  till 
ripe,  and  then  in  some  way  or  other  to  promote  their  dispersion, 
either  by  scattering  them  by  its  elastic  power,  or  by  serving  as 
food  for  animals. 

Pericarps  are  of  several  kinds. 
1.  CAPSULE,  (capsula.)     PI.  14,  fig.  6.  A  dry  seed- 
vessel   of  a   woody   or  membranous  texture.       Ex. 
Thorn-apple,  Datura  stramonium. 

Terms  applied  to  the  parts  of  seed-vessels  and  principally 

to  the  parts  of  a  capsule. 

1.  Valves,  (valvulcv)  the  pieces  into  which  a  capsule 
usually  splits. 


53  FRUCTIFICATION. 

Observation.     Although  the  capsule  usually  splits  into  valves,  . 
yet  it  sometimes  discharges  its  contents  by  orifices  or  pores,  as  in 
Bell'flower,  Campanula,  andPoppy,  or  falls  off  entire  with  the  seed, 

Q.  Sutures,  (suturce)  the  seams  by  which  the  valves 
are  united  to  each  other. 

S.  Cells,  (loculi.*)  PL  14,  fig.  6,  a.  The  cavities  con- 
taining the  seeds. 

4.  Dissepiments,  (dissepimenta)  partitions  between 
the  cells. 

5.  Collumn,  (collumellci)  b.  The  pillar  to  which  the 
seeds  are  attached. 

Observation.  The  capsule  is  called  one-valved,  two-waived,  &c. 
according-  to  the  number  of  valves  ;  and  oiie-celled,  ttvo-celled,  Sec 
according1  to  the  number  of  cells. 

2.  SILIQUE,  (siiiqwi)  Pod.     PI.  14,  fig.  7.     A  long, 
dry,  solitary  seed-vessel?  consisting  of  two  valves  with 
a  dissepiment  intervening,  seeds  attached   alternately 
to  one  and   the  other  suture.      Ex.   Cabbage,   Rad- 
ish, &c. 

Silicic,  (silicula^  PL  14,  fig.  8.  A  silique  or  pod, 
of  a  short  rounded  figure.  Ex.  Shepherd's  purse, 
ThlaspL 

Observation.    Nearly  or  quite  as  broad  as  long. 

3.  LEGUME,  (legumen.)      PL  14,  fig.  9.      A  mem- 
branous seed-vessel  of  two  valves,  no  dissepiment,  seeds 
attached  to  one  suture  only.     Ex.  Pea  and  Bean. 

Observation*  Sometimes  this  kind  of  fruit  lodges  but  one  seed, 
as  in  Clover. 

Loment,  (lomentum)  expresses  an  elongated  seed- 
vessel,  consisting  of  two  valves,  externally  forming  su- 
tures, but  never  bursting  like  the  legume.  Internally 
it  is  divided  into  cells  by  small  transverse  partitions. 
Ex.  Cassia  and  Hedysarum. 

4.  DRUPE,   (tlrupa)   Stone-fruit.      PL   14,  fig.    10, 
Consists  of  a  pulpy  coat  enclosing  a  nut.     Ex,  Peach* 
Plumb,  Cherry.  &c. 


SEEDS.  59 

5.  POME,  (jummm.)    PL  14,  fig.  *i.      Has  a  pulpy 
coat  like  the  drupe,  but  contains  a  capsule  with  several 
seeds.     Ex.  Apple  and  Pear,  Tyrus. 

6.  BERRY,  (bacca.)    PI.  14,  fig.  12.     A  fleshy  peri- 
carp without  valves,  containing  one  or  more  seeds  en- 
veloped with  pulp.      Ex.   Gooseberry  and  Currant, 
Ribes. 

Compound  Berry,  (bacca  composita.)  PI.  14,  fig.  «J  3. 
Consists  of  several  single  ones,  each  containing  a  seed, 
united  together.  Ex.  Raspberry,  Rubus.  Each  sepa- 
rate grain  is  denominated  Acinus. 

Observation.  The  melon  and  cucumber  tribe  have  a  berry  of  a 
peculiar  kind  ;  the  cells  together  with  the  seeds  are  remote  from 
the  centre,  the  seeds  being  inserted  into  the  sides  of  the  fruit. 

7.  STROBILE,  (strobilus)  Cone.     PL  14,  fig.  14.     Is 
a  catkin  or  ainent,  hardened  and  enlarged  into  a  seed- 
vessel.     Ex.  Pine  and  Fir. 

VI.  Seeds. 

SEEDS,  (semina^)  are  the  «  sole  end  and  aim  of  all 
the  organs  of  the  fructification.  Every  other  part  is, 
in  some  manner,  subservient  to  the  forming,  perfecting, 
or  dispersing  of  them." 

A  Seed  consists  of  several  parts. 

k  CORCULE,  (corculum.)  PI.  16,  fig.  8,  b.  c.  This 
is  the  chick  or  embryo  of  the  future  plant.  It  is  the 
essential  part  of  the  seed,  to  which  all  the  rest  are 
wholly  subservient,  and  without  which  no  seed  will 
vegetate. 

The  Corcule  consists  of  two  parts. 

1.  Radicle,  (radicula)  6,  the  descending  part,  which 
unfolds  itself  into  roots. 

2.  Plume,  (plumuld)  c9  the  ascending  part,  which 
unfolds  itself  into  herbage. 

2.  COTYLEDONS,  (cotyledones.)  Seed-lobes.  PL  16, 
fig.  8,  a.  a.  They  usually  constitute  the  principal  bulk 
of  the  seed.  They  are  attached  immediately  to  the 


60  IfRUCTlFlCATION, 

corcule,  which  they  nourish  until  it  has  taken  sufficient 
root  to  support  itself  from  the  earth. 

Observation.  The  cotyledons  are  commonly  two  in  number,  as 
in  the  Bean.  They  rise  out  of  the  ground  with  the  plume,  and 
become  the  Seminal  leaves,  (folia  seminalia)  PI.  16,  fig.  10,  still 
supplying  nourishment  to  the  young  plant,  and  acting  as  lungs  to 
it  by  permitting  the  juices  to  be  changed  in  them  by  the  action  of 
light  and  air. 

From  their  Cotyledons  Plants  are  denominated 

1.  Acotyledonous,  (acotyledones)  supposed  to  have  no 
cotyledons.    Ex.  Ferns. 

2.  Monocotyledonous,  (monocotyledones.yPL  16,  fig. 
7.     Having  one  cotyledon  or  lobe.     Ex.  Grasses. 

3.  Dicotyledonous,  (dicotijledones.)      PI.   16,  fig.  8. 
Having  two.     Ex.  Bean,  Pea. 

4.  PoIycotyledonouSj  (polycotyledones.)      PL  16,  fig. 
9.     Having  several.    Ex.  Pine  and  Fir. 

3.  SKIN,  (testa)  envelopes   the  other  parts,  giving 
them  their  proper  shape  ;    for  the   skin  is   properly 
formed  while  they  are  a  homogenous  fluid. 

Observation.  1.  This  is  sometimes  lined  with  a  fine  and  delicate 
membrane. 

2.  ^There  is  in  some  cases  a  loose  coat  (arillus)  external  to  the 
skin,  which  generally  falls  off  when  the  seed  is  ripe. 

4.  SCAR,  (hilnm)  is  the  point  by  which  the  seed  is 
attached  to  the  vessel  or  receptacle. 

Observation.  At  this  point  all  the  parts  of  the  seed  are  connect- 
ed ;  through  this  part  it  is  nourished  while  connected  with  its  par- 
ent plant  ;  and  through  it  also,  it  imbibes  the  juices  of  the  earth 
previous  to  germination. 

Appendages  to  the  seed. 

1.  PAPPUS,  (pappus.}     PI.  16,  fig.  5,  c.  The  feathe- 
ry crown  of  seeds  calculated  to  wait  them  in  the  wind. 
Ex.  Dandeijon,  Thistle. 

2.  STJPK,  (stipes)  b.     A  thread  which  connects  the 
pappus  with  the  seed. 


SEEDS.  t)l 

The  Pappus  is  termed 

1.  Stipitate,  (stlpitatus)  wlien  supported  on  a  stipe. 
Ex.  Dandelion. 

2.  Sessile,  (sessilis)  when  it  is  immediately  connect- 
ed with  the  seed.     Ex.  Jlpargia. 

3.  Pilose,  (pilosus)  when  it  consists  of  simple  hairs. 
Ex.  Golden  Rod,  Solidago. 

4.  Plumose,  (plumosus*)  when  each  hair  is  branched 
like  a  feather.     Ex.  Dandelion. 

5  Membranaceous,  when  it  consists  of  thin,  trans- 
parent leaves. 

3.  TAIL,  (caiida)  is  an  elongated,  generally  feathe- 
ry, appendage  to  some  seeds  formed  from  the  perma- 
nent style.      Ex.  Virgin's   bower,  Clematis  ;  Avens, 
Geum. 

4.  WING,  (aid)  a  dilated  membranous  appendage  to 
seeds.  Ex.  Catalpa  tree  and  Trumpet -flower,  Big-nonia. 

DISSEMINATION,  (disseminatio  ) 

The  various  contrivances  of  nature  to  disperse  and  scatter 
abroad  the  seeds, 

Observation  The  various  modes  by  which  seeds  are  dispersed, 
is  a  subject  truly  wonderful,  and  cannot  fail  to  excite  udmirat  ion 
in  an  observing  mind.  The  numerous  organs  evidently  construct- 
ed for  this  peculiar  purpose  are  alone  sufficient  to  prove,  be- 
yond a.  possibility  of  doubt,  that  the  creation  is  the  product  of 
superiour  intelligence  and  design. 

Naturalists  observe  four  means  of  dissemination. 

1  Rivers  and  running  waters.  2.  Wind.  3.  Animals.  4.  An 
elastic  capsule. 

L  Seeds  are  often  conveyed  by  running  waters  a  great  distance 
from  their  native  soil,  and  cast  upon  a  very  different  climate,  to 
which,  however,  by  degrees,  they  render  themselves  familiar. — 
•Milne 

2.  Those  which  are  carried  by  the  wind,  are  either  furnished 
with  a  pappus,  as  in  the  Dandelion,  Thistle,  and  other  compound 
flowers,  or  with  a  wing,  as  the  Maple,  Ash,  Trumpet-flower,  &c» 
Tbebracteaof  the  Lime-tree  or  Basswood,  Tilea,  serves  to  wing 
the  seed  ;  it  is  placed  obliquely,  so  as  to  give  a  rotatory  or 
whorling  motion  as  it  falls.  Winged  seeds  generally  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  acquire  a  rotatory  motion  as  they  fall,  and  arc  thus 
suspended  some  time  in  the  air. 

Many  seeds,  in  addition  to  the  means  of  dissemination,  are  cal- 
culated to  bury  themselves  in  the  earth.  The  seeds  of  many  of 
the  compound  flowers,  as  the  Dandelion,  have  barbs  pointing  up i. 

6 


6  2  FRUCTIFICATION. 

ward  in  such  a  way,  that  after  they  are  thrown  down,  the  wind,  by 
moving  the  pappus,  works  them  into  the  earth.  The  Animated 
Oat,  being-  moved  by  every  change  of  moisture,  affecting  its  twist- 
ed  awn,  works  its  way  into  the  earth  with  wonderful  certainty. 

3.  Animals  feed  on  the  pulpy  fruits,  and  at  the  same  time  dis- 
perse their  seeds,  voiding-  them  in  a  condition  to  vegetate. 

Some  seeds  attach  themselves  to  animals,  by  means  of  barbs  and 
hooks,  which  are  either  affixed  to  the  seeds  themselves,  as  in  Car- 
rot, or  to  their  calyx,  as  in  Burdock,  Agrimony  and  Itidens. 

4.  The  Touch-me-not,  Impatiens,  is  a  common  example  of  an 
lastic  capsule, 

VII.  Receptacle. 

RECEPTACLE,  (receptaculum.)  PI.  12,  fig.  2,  a. 
Is  the  common  base  or  point  where  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  fructification  unite. 

It  is  termed 

1.  PROPER,  when  it  belongs  to  a  simple  flower. 

2.  COMMON,   when  it  belongs  to  aggregate  flowers, 
which  sec  below. 

Observation.  It  is  not  a  very  definite  part  in  simple  flowers, 
there  being  no  particular  line  of  separation  between  it  and  the 
other  parts  ;  in  the  compound  flowers,  as  the  Dandelion,  Sun- 
flower, £cc.  it  const  itutes  a  remarkable  and  important  part. 

Simple  and  Aggregate  Flowers. 

1.  A  SIMPLE  FLOWER,   (flos  simplex)  is  a  flower 
which  has  a   single  fructification,  complete  in  all  its 
parts,  none  of  which  are  common  to  many  flowers,  as 
the  Rose  and  Lily. 

Observation.  A  flower  furnished  with  both  calyx  and  corolla, 
is  termed  a  COMPLETE  flower,  (fos  completus  ,•)  when  the  latter  is 
wanting,  IN  COMPLETE,  (incompletus  ,•)  and  when  the  corolla  is  pres- 
ent without  a  calyx,  NAKEd,  (nudus.} 

2.  AGGREGATE  FLOWER,  (flos  aggregatus)  is  applied 
by  Linnseus  to  such  flowers  as  are  made  up  of  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  flowers,  collected  together  by  means  of 
a  part,  either  a  calyx  or  receptacle,  common  to  them  all. 

Observation.  Each  of  the  flowers,  which  goes  to  constitute  an  ag- 
gregate flower,  is  called  a  FLORET,  (ftosciiliifi)  little  flower  ;  and, 
from  the  above  description,  it  is  evident,  does  not  constitute  a 
complete  flower  of  itself,  as  one  or  two  of  the  essential  parts  of  a 
flower  are  common  to  the  whole  aggregate.  It  happens,  however, 
sometimes,  that  the  floret  will  be  furnished  with  a  part  analogous 


RECEPTACLE.  £3 

to  the  common  part  in  the  aggregate  ;   thus,  besides  a  common  ca- 
lyx, each  floret  may  have  its  own  proper  calyx. 

Linnseus  enumerates  seven  kinds  of  aggregate 
flowers. 

1.  AGGREGATE  FLOWER,  (Jios  aggregatus)  properly  so 
called,  which  has  a  common  undivided  receptacle,  the 
anthers  all  separate  and  distinct. 

Observation.     Flowers  visually  blue,  purple  or  white. 

2.  COMPOUND  FLOWER  (flos  compositus)  has  also  a 
common  undivided  receptacle,  but  the  filaments,  which 
are  five,   have  their  anthers  united  into  a  tube.     Ex. 
Dandelion,  Sunflower,  Daisy,  &c. 

Observation.  These  constitute  the  class  Syngenesia,  which  see. 
Flowers  usually  yellow,  especiall}  in  the  centre  or  disk. 

3.  AMENTACEOUS  (Jlos   amentaceus)  has  a  thread- 
like   receptacle,    along   which    are   disposed    scales, 
each  of  which  is  accompanied  with  one  or  more  sta- 
mens or  pistils.    Ex.  Willow  and  Alder.    See  AMENT, 
page  48. 

Observation.  1.  The  greatest  part  of  the  amentaceous  flowers  arc 
separated. 

2.  The  birch,  betula  ;  beech,  fagus  ;  poplar,  popidus  ;  hazel, 
corylus  ;  hornbean,  carplnus  ;  pine,  pinus  ;  walnut,  juelans  ;  oak, 
quercus  ;  and  some  other  trees,  are  amentaceous  The  fertile  flow- 
ers of  some  of  these  are  not  aments,  as  the  walnut,  oak,  and  hazel. 

4.  GLUMOSE,  (flos  glumosus)  has  a  slender,  thread- 
shaped  receptacle,  along  which  are  disposed  a  number 
of  florets,  all  enclosed  in  a  common  calyx,  termed 
GLUME,  (gluma.)    Ex.  Grasses. 

5.  SpADicEous9  (Jlos  spadiceus)  a  sheathed  flower, 
in  which  the  receptacle  common  to  many  florets  is  a 
spadix'y  enclosed  with  a  sheath  (spatha.')  Ex.  Common 
Dragon  Wild  Turnip,  JUnnn.* 

6.  UMBELLATE,  (jflos  umbettatui)  in  which  the  flo- 
rets are  borne  on  footstalks  produced  from  a  common 
receptacle.  Ex.  Hemlock,  Carrot.    See  UMBEL,  p.  42. 

7.  CYMOSE,  (Jlos  cymosus)  consists   also   of  florets 
borne  on  foot-stalks  produced  from  a  common  recep- 
tacle.    Ex.  Elder,  Smnbucus.     See  CYME,  p.  43. 


PART  IV. 


SYSTEM  or  LINNJEUS,  &c. 

According  to  the  Linnsean  system,  the  vegetable 
kingdom  is  divided  into  Classes,  Orders,  Genera,  and 
Species.  See  page  4. 

Observation.  1  These  divisions  arid  subdivisions  of  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  enable  a  student  to  find  out  the  name  and  history  of 
stii  unknown  plant,  in  the  most  expeditious  manner,  by  referring 
it,  in  the  first  place,  to  its  class,  and  to  its  order  in  that  class  ; 
then  determining-  to  what  p-enus  it  belongs,  and  what  species  it 
is  in  the  genus,  which  is  the  individual :  whereas,  without  method 
and  system,  he  would  have  been  under  the  necessity  of  searching 
over  the  descriptions  of  all  the  plants  known. 

2.  The  Classes  and  Orders  are  called  artificial  divisions,  in  oppo- 
sition to  natural  ones,  because  they  are  professedly  constructed  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  mere  convenient  divisions,  stamped  by  a  de- 
finite mark  by  which  the  individuals  of  each  may  be  at  once  recog- 
nised ;  and  because  they,  in  many  instances,  bring  together,  in  the 
same  division,  plants  which  are  dissimilar,  agreeing-  only  in  the 
assumed  technical  character  of  such  division,  as  the  Elm  and  Car- 
rot, which,  notwithstanding  they  are  very  unlike,  belong  to  the 
same  class  and  order  merely,  because  th?y  have  each  the  same 
number  of  stamens  and  pistils;  whereas  natural  divisions  bring 
together  such  only  as  are  similar,  allied  by  numerous  affinities,  as 
the  Carrot  and  Parsnip.  The  Genera  are  founded  on  natural  af- 
finities, and  are  natural  of  course.  The  genera  are  naturally  di- 
vided into  species  See  observations  on  Natural  Orders. 

It  is  no  objection  to  artificial  divisions,  that  they  bring  together, 
in  the  same  division,  objects  which  are  dissimilar;  but  their 
characters  should  be  so  constructed,  that  they  should  not  separate 
those  which  are  very  closely  allied,  as  the  various  species  of  the 
same  genus. 


C3LASSBS.  65 

CHAP.  I. 

CLASSES   AND    ORDERS. 

I.  CLASSES,  (classes.) 

THE  CLASSES  of  Linnseus  are  twenty-four,  and 

their  distinctions  are  founded  on  the  number,  situation 

or  proportion  of  the  stamens.      Their  names  are  of 

Greek  derivation,  and  are  expressive  of  their  characters. 

The  first  eleven   are  characterized   solely 

liy  the  number  of  the  Stamens. 
Plate  15  contains  figures  of  the  24  classes. 

1.  MONANDRIA,  1  stamem.      Ex.   Glass  wort,  Sail- 
cornia. 

Observation     A  small  class. 

2.  DIANDRIA,  2  stamens.     Ex.  Lilac,  S-yringa. 

3.  TRIANDRIA,  3  stamens.      Ex.  Blue  Flag,   Iris. 
Most  of  the  grasses  belong  to  this  class. 

4.  TETRANDRIA,  4  stamens.     Ex.  Plantain,   Plan- 
tago. 

5.  PENTANDRIA,   5  stamens.       Ex.  Thorn-apple, 
Datura. 

Observationon.     A  numerous  class* 

6.  HEXANDRIA,  6  stamens.     Ex.  Lily,  Lilium. 

7.  HEPTANDRIA,  7  stamens.    Ex.  Trientalis. 

Observation,     A  very  small  class. 

8.  OCTANDRIA,  8  stamens.     Ex.  Primrose,  CE.no- 
them. 

9.  ENTOANDRIA,  9  stamens.   Ex.  Sassafras,  Laurus. 

Observation.     A  small  class. 

10.  DECANDRIA,  10  stamens.     Ex.  Pink,  Dianthus. 

11.  DODECANDRIA,  12  to  19.     Ex.  Canada  Snake- 
root,  Marum. 

By  Number  and  Insertion. 

12.  ICOSANDRIA,  20  or  more  stamens  inserted  into  the 
calyx.     Ex,  Apple,  Pear,  Cherry,  Plum,   Raspberry, 


CLASSES. 


Strawberry,  and  other  fruits.  The  Rose  is  an  exam- 
ple ;  also,  the  Five-finger  and  Avens,  which  have  not 
pulpy  fruits. 

Observation.  1.  A  natural  class.* 

2.  The  stamens  are  often  inserted  so  near  the  receptacle  as  to 
resemble  the  next  class,  but  the  student  will  generally  distinguish 
it  by  a  polished  groove,  which  runs  around  between  the  insertion 
of  the  stamens  and  the  insertion  of  the  pistils. 

IS.  POI.YANDRIA,  stamens  more  than  20,  inserted  in~ 
to  the  receptacle.  Ex.  Poppy,  Papaver ;  Buttercup, 
Ranunculus. 

Observation.  A  numerous  class,  very  distinct  in  nature,  as  well 
as  character,  from  those  of  Icosandria. 

By  Proportion. 

14.  DIDYNAMIA,  stamens  2  long  and  2  short.      Ex. 
Motherwort,  Leonurus  ;  Mint,  Mentha. 

Observation  This  is  a  natural  class,  and  contains  most  of  the 
ringent  and  personate  flowers.  Some  plants  with  ringent  flowers 
want  two  of  the  stamens,  and  therefore  are  placed  in  the  2d  class, 
JJiandria.  Penny-royal,  Cunilla  /  Sage,  Salvia  /  and  Water-hore- 
hound,  Lycopus,  are  examples. 

15.  TETRADYNAMIA,  stamens  4  long  and  2  short. 
Ex.  Stock,  Radish,  Mustard,  Cabbage. 

Observation.  A  very  natural  class,  comprehending  all  the  era* 
eiforrn  flowers. 

By  Union  of  the  Filaments. 

16.  MONADEI.PHIA,  stamens  united  more  or  less  ex- 
tensively into  one  tube.     Ex.  Mallow,  JMalva. 

17.  DIADELPHIA,  stamens  united  into  two  parcels. 
Ex.  Pea,  Bean. 

Observation  This  class  consists  of  Popilionaceous  flowers,  and 
is  therefore  natural, 

18.  POI.YADELPHIA,  stamens  united  into  more  than 
two  parcels.     Ex.  St.  John's  wort. 

Observation.  A  small  class ;  in  some  points  related  to  Icos- 
andria. 

*  A  class  or  order  is  said  to  be  natural,  when  all  the  genera  which  compose  it  have 
&  degree  of  resemblance  to  each  other,  or,  in  other  words,  are  allied  by  affinities. 


CLASSES.  6f 

By  Union  of  the  Anthers. 

19.  SYNGENESIA,  stamens  united  by  their  anthers- 
into  a  tube,  flowers  compound.  Ex.  Dandelion,  Sun- 
flower, Thistle,  &c. 

Observation.    A  very  natural  and  extremely  numerous  class. 
By  Union  of  the  Stamens  and  Pistils* 

£0.  GYNANDRIA,  stamens  united  with  or  growing 
out  of  the  pistil.  Ex.  Orchis  and  Ladies'  slipper, 
Cypripedium. 

By  the  Situation  of  the  perfect9barren9  and  fertile  Flowers. 
31.  MONOECIA,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flow- 
ers on  the  same  plant.     Ex.  Indian  Corn,  Zca  ;  Hazel, 
Corylus  ;  Alder,  Mnus. 

Observation.  In  India  Corn,  the  spike  or  spindle,  so  called,  at  top 
bears  the  stamens,  and  the  ear  the  pistils,  the  styles  of  which  are 
"what  are  called  the  silk. 

£2.  DIOECIA,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flow- 
ers on  two  separate  plants  of  the  same  species.  Ex. 
Willow  and  Hop. 

Observation.  These  two  last  classes  are  natural  when  the  barren 
flowers  have,  besides  the  difference  in  their  essential  organs,  a 
different  structure  from  the  fertile  ones  in  other  raspects  ;  but  not 
so  when  they  have  the  same  structure,  because  then  both  organs 
are  liable  to  meet  in  the  same  flower. — Smith. 

£3.  POLYGAMIA,  stamens  and  pistils  separate  in 
some  flowers,  united  in  others,  either  on  the  same 
plant,  or  on  two  or  three  separate  ones  of  the  same 
species.  Ex.  Maple,  «#eer. 

Observation.  As  many  plants  do,  occasionally,  have  their  sta- 
mens and  pistils  separate  in  some  flowers,  Smith  proposes  to 
confine  this  class  to  those  in  which  the  three  kinds  of  flowers  dif- 
fer in  their  general  structure. 

By  Concealment. 

£4.  CRYPTOGAMIA,  stamens  and  pistils  obscure.  Ex. 
Ferns,  Lichens,  Seaweeds,  and  Mushrooms. 


68  CLASSES. 

Observation.  Either  not  well  ascertained  or  not  to  be  numbered 
with  any  certainty,  insomuch  that  the  plants  cannot  be  referred  to 
any  of  the  foregoing*  classes. 

Derivation  of  the  names  of  the  Classes. 

1.  Monandria,  from   ftovos  monos,    one,   &  fay%    aner, 
which  is  used  to  signify  a  stamen. 

2.  Diandria,  ht  dis,  two,  &  uryg  aner. 

3.  Triandria,  rgti$  ireis,  three,  &  fayf  aner. 

4.  Tetrandria,  rsrret,^  tettares,  four,  &  av«7f  aner. 

5.  Pentandria,  irevrf  pente,  five,  &  «v^  aner. 

6.  Hexandria,  «|  ex^  six,  &  civt%  aner 

7.  Heptandria^  inr*  epta,  seven,  &  *w%  aner. 

8.  Octandriap  OATH  octo,  eight,  &  uvyg  aner. 

9.  Enneandria,  «v»/«  ennea.  nine,  &  «v^  awer. 

10.  Decandria,  fox.*  deka>  ten,  &  «**£  aner. 

11.  Dudecandria,  J^^f^a  dodeka,  twelve,  Sauvyg  aner. 

12.  Icosandria,  ejxo^  eikosi.  twentj,  &  «v^  aner. 

13.  Polyandria,  7roAt/$  polus,  many,  &c  «v^  awer. 

14.  Didynamia,  <J/5  rfis,  two,  &  Mvafiig  dunamis*  power. 

15.  Tetradynamia,  Terrenes  tettares9  four,  &  $fo*fuq  du» 
namis. 

16.  Monad elphia,  f*ovo$  monos,  one,  &  £JVAp«$  adelphos, 
brotherhood. 

17.  Diadelphia,  J^$  ^is,  two,  &  ahbfys  adelphos. 

18.  Polyadelphia,  ^oAv$  ^oZ^s,  many,  &  «JVA0o$  adelphos. 

19.  Syngenesia,  <rw  SMW,  together,  &  ygvf <r/$  genesis,  pro- 
ducing. 

20.  Gynandria  ywf  ^wne,  a  pistil,  &  «v^  aner,  a  stamen. 

21.  Monoecia,  /ttovo?  monos,  one,  &  01x0$  uikos,  a  house. 

22.  Dioecia^  <J/s  c/is,  two,  &  04x0$  oz'/cos. 

23.  Polygamia,  Trohvg  polus,  many,  &  yaw  gamos,  mar- 
riage. 

24.  Cryptogamia,   K^VTTTW  kruptos,  concealed,  &  7*^05 
gamos. 

II,  ORDERS. 

THE  ORDERS  are  divisions  of  the  classes.  In 
the  thirteen  first  classes,  they  are  founded  on  the  num- 
ber of  styles  or  on  that  of  the  stigmas,  when  the  styles 
are  wanting. 

Observation.  Their  names  are  of  Greek  origin  and  are  indica- 
tive of  their  characters.  They  are  mostly  fx*om  the  Greek  nu- 
merals Monos,  Disy  Treis,  &c.  and  Gune,  which  is  used  te  signify 
a  pistil, 


ORDERS. 

MONOGYNIA,     1  style  or  sessile  stigma. 
DIGYNIA,         2  styles  or  sessile  stigmas 
TRIGYNIA,       3     — 

TETRAGYNIA,4      ~ 

PENTAGYJVIA,  5     — ^ 
HEXAGYNIA,    6    — • 

Observation,     Of  rare  occurrence. 
HEPTAGYNIA,  7    — -  -• 

Observation.    Still  more  rare. 
OCTAGYNIA,     8      — 
Observation.     Scarcely  occurs  at  all. 
ENNEAGYNIA,9      

Observation.     Hardly  an  instance  known. 

DECAGYNIA,IO     —  

DODECAGYNIA,  about  12 

POLYGYNIA,  many 

Observation*  1.  The  grasses  which  constitute  a  natural  order, 
belong  principally  to  the  third  Class,  TRLAWDBIA,  and  to  the  sec- 
ond Order,  Digynia, 

2.  To  the  fifth  Class,  PKNTANDRTA,  and  to  the  second  Order, 
Digynia,  belong-  the  great  natural  family  of  umbelliferous  plants, 
of  which  the  Parsnip  and  Carrot  are  examples. 

CLASS  14,  Didynamia. 

In  this  class  there  is  but  a  single  pistil.  The  orders, 
both  natural,  are  characterised  by  the  fruit. 

1.  GYMNOSPERMIA,    (yv^of  gumnos,    naked,    arid 
rTreppa  sperma,  seed)  seeds  naked  in  the  bottom  of  the 
calyx,  almost  universally  4.     Ex.  Mint,  Hyssop,  Cat- 
mint, Thyme. 

Observation.     Corolla  usually  ring-ent. 

2.  ANGIOSPERMIA,    (&vyo$  aggos,  a    capsule,    and 
rvspp.*  sperma)    seeds  in   a  caj>sule,  numerous.      Ex. 
Toad-fiax,  Antirrhinum,  Chelonc  and  Mimulus. 

Observation.    The  personate  flowers  belong  to  this  order. 


70  ORDERS. 

CLASS  15.  Tetradynamia. 

This,  like  the  last,  has  but  one  pistil*  It  has  two  or- 
ders, hoth  very  natural,  and  distinguished  by  the  form 
of  the  fruit. 

1.  SILICULOSA,  fruit  a  silicle  fsiliculaj  or  roundish 
pod.     Ex.  Shepherd's  purse,  Thlaspi, 

2.  SLLIQUOSA,  fruit  a  silique  fsiiiquaj  or  long  pod. 
Ex.  Stock-July,  Cabbage,  Mustard. 

The  orders  of  the  16th,  17th  and  18th  classes,  Man- 
adelphia,  Diadel^Jna  and  Polyadelpkia,  are  founded  on 
the  number  of  the  stamens,  that  is,  on  the  characters  of 
the  thirteen  first  classes,  and  have  the  same  names* 
TRIANBRIA,  PENTANDIUA^  &c. 


Observation.  It  may  appear  inconsistent  to  the  student,  that 
there  should  be  orders  Triandria  &c.  when  there  are  classes  of  the 
same  name  ;  but  he  will  observe,  that  these  are  orders  of  classes, 
which  have  their  character  not  from  the  number  of  stamens,  but 
from  some  other  circumstance  ;  in  the  classes  above,  from  the 
union  of  the  filaments,  the  number  of  the  stamens  being  unappropri- 
ated is  taken  to  characterize  their  orders. 

CLASS  19.  Syngenesia. 

Observation  The  orders  of  this  great  natural  class  are  frequently 
complained  of,  as  being  difficult  to  be  understood  It  is  true  there 
are  a  number  of  particulars  relating  to  compound  flowers,  which 
should  be  attended  to  by  the  student,  before  he  can  possibly  have 
a  clear  conception  of  these  orders.  Each  of  these  particulars  is 
easy  enough  in  itself;  and  it  is  only  for  want  of  attention  to  them 
that  he  meets  with  any  difficulty  in  understanding  the  orders. 

As  the  class  is  a  very  extensive  and  interesting  one,  the  student 
is  directed  to  attend  to  the  points  alluded  to  above,  in  the  follow- 
ing 

Analysis  of  Compound  Flowers. 

1.  A  COMPOUND  FLOWER*  is  formed  by  the  union  of  seve- 
eral  fructifications  or  lesser  flowers,  called  florets,  placed  together 
upon  a  common  receptacle,  and  enclosed  in  a  common  calyx  ;  each 
floret  being  furnished  with  fivti  stamens,  distinct  at  bottom,   but 
united  at  top  by  their  anthers  into  a  tube  or  cylinder,  through  which 
passes  a  style  considerably  longer  than  the  stamens,  and  crowned 
by  a  stigma  or  summit  with  two  divisions,  that  are  generally  rolled 
backward  like  a  recurved  fork. 

2.  Each  floret  has  a  monopetalous  corolla. 

*  The  Class  Syngenesit  is  made  up  of  compound  flowers, 


ORDERS.  71 

The  Florets,  as  it  respects  their  Corollas,  are  of  two  hinds. 

1.  Ligulate,  having  a  strap-shaped  corolla,  ending  in  three  or 
five  teeth,  PL  16,  fig.  1,  a. 

2.  Tubular,  having  a  tubular  corolla  divided  into  five  segments 
at  top,  b. 

The  Flowers  themselves  are  of  three  kinds. 

1.  COMPOUND  RADIATE.  PI.  16,fig.l.  Consisting  of  two  parts  ;  the 
disk  or  central  part  of  the  flower,  c  composed  of  tubular   florets, 
and  the  ray,  the  external  circle  of  florets,  d,  which  is  composed  of 
ligulate  florets.     In  the  Sunflower,  the  disk  is  brown  and  the  ray 
yellow.    In  the  Whiteweed,  Crysanthemum,  the  disk  is  yellow  and 
the  ray  white       These   flowers  are  compared  to  the  sun,  having 
his  disk  and  rays. 

2.  LIGULATE.  PI.  16,  fig.  2.     Made  up  altogether  of  ligulate  flo- 
rets, as  the  Dandelion. 

3.  DISCOID.    PI.  16,  fig.  3.      Composed  entirely  of  tubular  flor- 
ets, as  the  Burdock  and  Thistle. 

So  far  the  florets  have  been  described  as  being  perfect,  furnish- 
ed with  both  stamens  and  pistils  ;  but  these  are  sometimes  sepa- 
rated and  found  in  separate  florets  in  the  same  flower. 

The  Florets,  as  it  respects  Stamens  and  Pistils,  are  of  four  kinds. 

1.  Perfect  florets,  having  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

2.  Barren,  having  stamens  only. 

3.  Fertile,  have  pistils  only. 

4.  Abortive,  destitute  of  either  stamens  or  pistils,   or  having 
none  that  are  effectual. 

The  orders  of  this  class,  Syngenesia,  are  founded  on 
the  situation  of  the  several  kinds  of  florets  ;  perfect) 
barren,  fertile,  and  abortive. 

1.  POLYGAMIA  JEQ.UALIS,  florets  all  perfect  or  united, 
each  having  stamens  and  pistils.      Ex.   Dandelion, 
Leontodon  ;  Thistle,  Carduus  and  Cnicus. 

Observation.  Linnaeus  applies  the  term  polygamia  to  all  the  or- 
ders of  this  class,  on  account  of  the  promiscuous  intercommunica- 
tion of  the  several  kinds  of  florets  in  a  compound  flower. 

2.  POLYGAMIA  SUPEKFLUA,  florets  of  the  disk  perfect, 
having  stamens  aud  pistils ;  those  of  the  ray  fertile,  hav- 
ing pistils  only,  but  each  producing  perfect  seed.     Ex. 
Camomile,  dnthemis ;  Field-daisy,  Chrysanthemum. 


72  ORDERS. 

3.  POLYGAMIA  FRUSTRANEA,  florets  of  the  disk  per- 
fect ;  those  of  the  ray  abortive,  being  either  destitute  of 

a  pistil,  or  having  only  an  ineffectual  one.      Ex.  Blue- 
bottle, Centaurea;  Sunflower,  Helian thus. 

4.  PO;LYGAMIA  NECESSARIA,  florets  of  the  disk,  bar- 
ren, having  stamens  only  ;  those  of  the  ray  fertile,  hav- 
ing pistils  only.    Ex.  Marygold  \  Everlasting,  Gnaph- 
alium* 

5.  POLYGAMIA  SEGREGATA,  each  floret  having  a  ca- 
lyx proper  to  itself,  besides  a  common  calyx  includ- 
ing them  all.     Ex.  Globe  Thistle,  Gundelia. 

Observation*  1.  Linnaeus  had  a  6th  order,  named  Monogamia, 
consisting-  of  simple  flowers  with  united  anthers,  as  Violet  and  //o- 
belia  ;  but  as  these  have  no  affinity  to  the  compound  flowers, 
and  as  the  union  of  their  anthers  is  not  in  every  instance  constant, 
they  are  lately  more  commonly  placed  in  the  5th  class,  Peitfandria. 

2.  The  names  of  these  orders  have  been  translated,  as  follows  ; 
cequalis,  equal  ;  fnperflua,  superfluous  ;  frustranea,  ineffectual ; 
neccssaria,  necessary  ;  segregata,  separated. 

The  orders  of  the  20th  class,  Gynandria,  the  21st, 
Monoecia,  and  the  22d,  Dioecia,  are  distinguished  by  the 
characters  of  some  of  the  classes  themselves  which  pre- 
cede them,  that  is,  almost  entirely  by  the  number  of 
the  stamens,  and  have  the  same  names,  as  MONAJVDRIA, 

DlANDRIA,  &C. 

CXASS  23,  Potygamia. 

This  class  has  three  orders,  which  are  founded  on 
the  situation  of  the  stamen-bearing,  pistil-bearing,  and 
perfect  flowers. 

1.  MONOECIA,  lias  eitherperfcct  arid  stemen-bearing, 
or  perfect  and  pistil-bearing  flowers,  or  all  these  three 
kinds  on  the  same  plant. 

2.  DIOECIA,  has  the  two  or  three  kinds  of  flowers,  on 
two  separate  plants. 

3>  TRIOECIA,  has  them  on  three  separate  plants* 
The  Fig,  Ficus,  is  the  only  example- 


ORDERS.  <  i> 

CLASS  24,  Cnjptogamia. 

Observation*  The  orders  in  this  class  are  professedly  natural. 
They  are  four  in  Linnaeus,  but  we  no,Y  reckon  live. 

1.  FILICES,  Ferns.  Whose  fructification  is  obscure, 
and  grows  either  on  the  back  of  the  leaf,  which  is 
thence  denominated  a  frond  ;  or  upon  a  separate  frond. 
Common  Brake  is  an  example. 

The  parts  of  their  flowers  are  almost  entirely  un- 
known. Their  fructification  proved  to  be  such  by  pro- 
ducing them  from  their  seeds,  consists  of  the  following 
parts. 

1.  Involucre,  (i-nvolucrum  or  inducium.')      PL  5,  fig. 
10.     A  membranous  patch  which  covers  the  capsules. 

Observation.  The  fructification  is  most  commonly  in  dots  or 
patches,  which  are  frequently  in  rows  upon  the  back  of  the  leaf; 
each  of  these  dots  or  patches  consists  of  an  assemblage  of  cap- 
sules, either  naked  or  covered  by  an  involncrum. 

2.  Capsules,  PL    3,  fig.   11,   which  consist  of  two 
valves,  PL  3,  fig.  11,  6.  contain    many  seeds,  and  are 
sometimes  furnished  with  a  ring. 

3.  Ring,  (annulus.}    PL  3,  fig.  11.  a.  An  elastic  sub- 
stance which  surrounds  the  capsule,  partially  attached 
by  its  opposite  ends  to  the  two  valves  of  the  capsules. 

When  the  capsule  is  ripe,  its  valves  separate,  and  the 
ring,  by  its  elasticity,  throws  it  open,  thus  scattering 
abroad  the  seeds. 

Observation.  Those  furnished  with  a  ring  are  termed  annulate, 
those  destitute  of  it,  exannuJatx. 

2.  Musci,  Mosses.  These  are  really  herbs,  with  dis- 
tinct leaves,  and  frequently  a  distinct  stem. 

Fructification  of  the  Mosses. 

The  fertile  flowers  have  the  following  parts. 

1.  Calyptra,  (cahjptra.}  PL  3,  fig.  14,  b.  The" 
proper  calyx  of  the  mosses,  the  summit  of  which  per- 
forms the  office  of  a  stigma.  See  page  49. 

Observation.  Smith  considers  this  a  species  of  corolla,  and  its 
apex,  a  stigma. 


74  ORDEKS. 

£.  Capsule,  PI.  3,  fig.  14,  a.  It  is  of  one  valve  and 
one  cell,  opening  by  a  lid. 

S.  Lid,  (ppurculum.)  PI.  3,  fig.  15,6.  Which  is  situ- 
ated on  the  top  and  is  covered  by  the  calyptra. 

Observation.  The  capsule  in  most  mosses  has  its  orifice  closed 
by  a  fringe. 

4.  Fringe, (peristomium.')  PL  8,  fig.  15  &  16,  a.  Which 
is  brought  into  view  by  removing  the  lid.  It  is  either 
simple  or  double.  The  number  of  teeth,  remarkably 
constant  in  each  genus  and  species,  is  either  4,  8,  ]  6, 
32,  or  64. 

Observation.  1.  This  part  is  a  very  interesting-  object  in  the  mi- 
croscope. 

2.  The  stamens  and  pistih  of  mosses  are  so  difficult  to  be  ob- 
served, that  I  believe  no  distinctions  are  founded  on  them.      The 
barren  flowers  of  mosses  consist  of  an  indefinite  number  of  nearly 
cylindrical,   almost   sessile   anthers ;  the  fertile  flowers,  of  one, 
rarely   more,  perfect  pistils,  accompanied  by  several  barren  ones. 
Some'  few  species  have  the  stamens  and  pistils  associated  in  the 
same  flower,  but  they  are  generally  separated. 

3.  Hedwig  raised  mosses  from  the  seed. 

3.  HEPATICJE,  Liverworts.     Their  herbage  consists 
of  stem,  leaf,  and  fructification,  all  united,  hence  call- 
ed a  frond.     The  capsules  are  destitute  of  a  lid  or  opcr- 
culum. 

4.  A&GM,  Flags.     In   this  order  the  herbage   is  a 
frond,  sometimes  a  mere  crust,  sometimes  of  a  leathery 
or  gelatinous  texture.  The  seeds  are  imbedded  either  in 
the  frond  itself  or  in  some  peculiar  receptacle. 

To  this  order  belong  the  seaweeds,  &c.  23  the  com- 
mon weed  upon  rocks,  between  high  and  low  water, 
with  blistery  swellings,  and  the  green  fibrous  substance 
in  fresh  water;  also  the  Lichens,  very  distinct  from  the 
above,  examples  of  which  are  seen  in  the  green  and 
dark  coloured  patches  on  rocks,  and  in  the  light  green 
fibrous  substance  on  trees. 

5.  FUNGI,  Mushrooms.  PI.  2,  fig.  9.  These  cannot 
properly  be  said  to  have  any  herbage,  Their  subsance 


TABUS  OF  THE  CLASSES  AND  ORDERS.  75 

is  fleshy,  generally  of  quick  growth,  and  short  duration, 
differing  in  firmness  from  a  watery  pulp  to  a  leathery  or 
woody  texture.  Ex.  Common  Mushroom,  Toadstool, 
and  Puff  ball.  Their  seeds  are  imbedded  iii  their  sub- 
stance. 

Tabular  View  of  the  Classes  and  Orders. 
CLASS  1.  MONANDRIA,  1  stamen,  contains  2  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  one  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils.* 

CLASS  2.  DIANDRIA,  2  stamens,  contains  3  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 
S.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

CLASS  3.  TRIANDRIA,  3  stamens,  contains  3  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

CLASS  4.  TETRANDRIA,  4  stamens,  contains  3  ordeis. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Tetragynia,  4  pistils. 

CLASS  5.  PENTANDRIA,  5  stamens,  contains  6  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

4.  Tetragynia,  4  pistils. 

5.  Pentagynia,  5  pistils. 

6.  Polygynia,  many  pistils. 

CLASS  6.  HEXANDRIA,  6  stamens,  contains  6  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

4.  Tetragynia,  4  pistils. 

5.  Hexagynia,  6  pistils. 

6.  Polygynia,  many  pistils. 

*  When  the  pistils  are  not  distinct  in  all  their  parts,  the  number  of  styles  or  sessile 
stigmas  is  taken  for  the  order* 


7ft  TABLE  OF  THE 

CLASS  7.  HEPTANURIA,  7  stamens,  contains  4  orders. 

1.  Monogy nia,  having  I  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Tetragynm,  4  pistils. 

4.  Heptagynia,  7  pistils. 

CLASS  8.  OCTANDRIA,  8  stamens,  contains  4  orders, 
i.  Monogynia,  having  one  pistil, 
3.' Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

4.  Tetragynia,  4  pistils. 

CLASS  9.  ENNEANDRIA,  9  stamens,  contains  3  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

3.  Hexagynia,  6  pistils, 

CLASS  10.  DECANDRIA,  10  stamens,  contains  5  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

4.  Pentagynia,  5  pistils. 

5.  Decagyiiia,  10  pistils. 

CLASS  11.  DODECANDRIA,  12  to  19  stamens,  contains  6 
orders. 

1.  Mnnogy nia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia,  3  pistils. 

4.  Tetragynia,  4  pistils. 

5.  Pentagynia,  5  pistils. 

6«  Dodecagynia,  12  to  20  pistils. 
CLAS»  12.  ICOSANDRIA,  stamens  20  or  more,  inserted 
into  the  calyx,  contains  3  orders. 

1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 

2.  Pentagynia,  5  pistils. 

3.  Polygynia,  many  pistils. 

CLASS  13.  POLY ANDRIA,  stamens  more  than  20,  insert- 
ed into  the  receptacle,  contains  7  orders. 
1.  Monogynia,  having  1  pistil. 
.2.  Digynia,  2  pistils. 

3.  Trigynia.  3  pistils. 

4.  Tetragynia,  4  pistils. 


CLASSES  AND  ORDERS.  77 

5.  Pentagynia,  5  pistils. 

6.  Hexagynia,  6  pistils. 

7.  Polygynia,  many  pistils. 

CLASS  14.  DIDYNAMIA,  2  long  and  2  short  stamens, 
contains  2  orders. 

1.  Gymnospermia,  seeds  naked. 

2.  Angiospermia,  seeds  in  a  capsule. 

CLASS  15.  TETRADYNAMIA,  4  long  and   2  short  sta- 
mens, contains  2  orders. 

1.  Siliculosa,  fruit  a  short  roundish  pod. 

2.  Siliquosa,  fruit  a  long  pod. 

CLASS  16.  MONADELPHIA,   stamens    united  by  their 
filaments  into  one  tube,  contains  8  orders. 

1.  Triandria,  having  3  stamens. 

2.  Pentandria,  5  stamens. 

3.  Heptandria,  7  stamens. 

4-  Octandria,  8  stamens. 

5-  Decandria,  10  stamens. 
G«  Endecandria,  11  stamens. 

7.  Dodecaridria,  12  to  20  stamens. 

8.  Polyandria,  many  stamens. 

CLASS  17.  DIADELPHIA,  stamens  united  by  their  fila* 
merits  into  2  parcels,  contains  4  orders. 

1.  Pentandria,  having  5  stamens. 

2.  Hexandria,  6  stamens. 

3.  Octandria,  8  stamens. 

4.  Decandria,  10  stamens. 

CLASS  18.  POLYADELPHIA,  stamens  united  into  more 
than  2  parcels,  contains  3  orders. 

1.  Dodecandria,  having  from  12  to  20  stamens  in- 
serted on  the  receptacle. 

2.  Icosandria,  numerous  stamens  inserted,  in  several 
parcels,  on  the  calyx. 

3.  Polyandria,  stamens  numerous,   more  than  20, 
inserted  on  the  receptacle. 

CLASS  19.  SYNGENESIA,  anthers  united  into   a  tube, 
contains  5  orders. 
7* 


78  TABLE  OF  THE  CLASSES  Atfl>  ORDER!*. 

1.  Polygamia  sequalis,  all  the  florets  perfect,  having 
stamens  and  pistils. 

2.  Polygamia  superflua,  florets  of  the  disk  perfect, 
and  those  of  the  ray,  pistil-bearing. 

3.  Polygamia  frustranea,  florets  of  the  disk  perfect, 
those  of  the  ray  neuter  and  abortive. 

4.  Polygamia  necessaria,  florets  of  the  disk  furnish- 
ed with  stamens  only,  those  of  the  ray  with  pistils  only, 

5.  Polygamia  segregata,  florets  all  perfect,  and  each 
furnished  with  a  proper  calyx  besides   the  common 
calyx.  V- 

CLASS  £0.  GYNANDRIA,  stamens  inserted  on  the  pistil, 
contains  7  orders. 

1.  Monandria,  1  stamen. 

2.  Diandria,  2  stamens. 

3.  Triandria,  3  stamens. 

4.  Tetrandria,  4  stamens. 

5.  Pentandria,  5  stamens. 

6.  Hexandria,  6  stamens. 

7.  Octandria,  8  stamens. 

CLASS  21.  MONOECIA,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate 
flowers  on  the  same  plant,  contains  9  orders. 

1.  Monandria,  1  stamen. 

2.  Diandria,  2  stamens. 

3.  Triandria,  3  staiyiens. 

4.  Telramlria,  4  stamens. 

5.  Pentandria,  5  stamens. 

6.  Hexandria,  6  stamens. 

T.  Polyamlria,more  than  7  stnmens. 

8.  Monadelphia,  filaments  united  into  one  body. 

9.  Polyadelphia,  filaments  united  into  more   than 
2  sets 

CLASS  22.  DIOECIA,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate 
flowers,  situated  on  separate  plants,  contains  8  orders. 

1.  Monandria,  having  1  stamen* 
£.  Diandria,  2  stamens. 

3."  Triandria,  3  stamens. 

4.  Tetrandria,  4  stamens. 

5.  Pentawdria  *5  stamens. 


GENEKA.  79 

6.  Hexandria,  6  stamens. 

7.  Polyandria,  many  stamens. 

8.  Monadelphia,  filaments  united  into  a  tube. 
CLASS  23.  POLYGAMIA,  stamens  and  pistils  separate 

in  some  flowers,  united  in  others,  either  on  the  same 
plant,  or  on  two  or  three  distinct  ones  of  the  same 
species. 

Observation.  Such  difference  in  the  essential  organs  being 
moreover  accompanied  with  a  difference  of  structure  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  flower.— Smith. 

This  class  contains  3  orders. 

1.  Monoecia,  united  flowers,  accompanied  with  bar- 
ren or  fertile,  or  both,  all  on  one  plant. 

2.  Dioecia,  the  different  flowers  on  two  different 
plants. 

3.  Trioecia,  the  different  flowers  on  three  different 
plants. 

CLASS  24.  CHYPTOGAMIA,  stamens  and  pistils  either 
not  well  ascertained,  or  not  to  be  numbered  with 
any  certainty  ;  contains  five  orders. 

1.  Fillets,  Ferns. 

2.  Muse?,  Mosses. 

3.  Hepaticcv,  Liverworts. 

4.  Mgw,  Flags. 

5.  Fungi,  Mushrooms. 


CHAP.  II. 

GENERA  AND  SPECIES. 

I,  Genera  and  their  Characters. 

1.  A  GENUS  consists  of  a  number  of  plants  which 
agree  with  each  other  in  their  flower  and  fruit. — Will- 
denow* 

A  genus  comprehends  one  or  more  species,  so  essen- 
tially different  in  formation,  nature,  and  often  many 
adventitious  qualities,  from  other  plants,  as  to  consti- 


80  GENERA. 

tute  a  distinct  family  or  kind,  no  less  permanent,  and 
founded  in  the  immutable  laws  of  the  creation,  than  the 
different  species  of  such  a  genus. — Smith.  Take,  for 
example,  the  various  species  of  Rose ;  these  compose 
a  beautiful  genus,  known  to  the  most  ignorant,  merely 
by  a  certain  combination  of  ideas,  which  he  is  unable 
to  express,  but  which  is  clearly  distinguished  by  a  defi- 
nite character,  which,  in  the  present  instance,  consists, 
principally  in  the  urn-shaped  calyx,  the  enlargement 
or  swelling  below  the  flower.  The  Violets  form,  also, 
a  beautiful  genus,  and  the  Lilies  another.  Other  fa- 
miliar examples  of  genera  occur  in  the  several  families 
of  Oaks,  Pines,  Cherry  trees,  Willows  and  Birches. 

2.  A  genus  is  aptly  compared  to  a  family,  and  has- 
one  name,  called  the  generic  name,  applied  to  all  the  in- 
dividuals composing  it,  while  each  individual  or  species 
has,  in  addition,  its  own  peculiar  name,  called  the  spe- 
cific name  ;  thus  we  have  Lilium  Canadense,  Lilium 
Philadelphicum,  &c. 

3.  A  genus  may  consist  of  one  species  only,  although 
it  is  commonly  composed  of  more.      Ex.  Linncea  is  the 
only  species  of  its  genus. 

4.  Genera  are  as  much  founded  in  nature,  as  the 
species  which  compose  them. 

Observation,  1  Although  naturalists  assume  characters,  and  form 
artificial  divisions  as  they  please,  yet  they  all  agree  nearly  in  the 
genera,  which  are  sufficient!/  marked  by  nature. 

5.  Plants  of  the  same  genus  possess  similar  medici- 
nal powers. 

Observation.  This  is  in  general  true,  yet  there  are  so  many  ex« 
ceptions  that  "  the  final  appeal  must  be  to  experience."  Al- 
though their  properties  may  be  similar  in  kind,  yet  very  different 
effects  may  be  produced,  by  the  different  degree  in  which  they 
possess  these  properties. 

Generic  Characters. 

THE  GENERIC  CHAHACTER  is  that  mark  or  set  of 
marks  which  distinguishes  one  genus  from  all  others. 

1.  The  genric  characters  are  taken  exduswdyjrotti  the 
seven  parts  of  fructification. 


GENERA.  8 1 

Observation,  1.  This  is  a  rule  of  the  first  importance  in  scientif- 
ic botany,  and  should  be  kept  in  view  by  the  student  from  the 
very  commencement  of  his  studying  genera.  To  the  discovery  and 
observance  of  this  rule,  botany  owes  its  very  existence  as  a  science. 

Linnzeus  first  insisted  on  generic  characters  being  exclusively 
taken  from  the  seven  parts  of  fructification,  and  he  demonstrated 
these  to  be  sufficient,  for  all  the  plants  that  can  be  discovered. 

2.  The  most  important  characters  are  afforded  by  those  parts  of 

plants  which  are  most  essentially  concerned  in  the  reproduction  of 

»  the   species,  as  the  flower  and  fruit  ;  it  follows  then,  that  plants 

which  agree  in  these,  whether  they  agree  in  other  points,  or  not, 

are  allied  ;  and  those  which  do  not,  are  fundamentally  different. 

2.  Generic  characters  are  drawn  from  the  number, 
figure,  situation,  proportion,  and  connexion  of  eacli  par- 
ticular part  of  the  fructification. 

Observation.  1.  Thus  all  the  different  species  of  calyx,  corolla, 
nectary,  pericarp,  &c.  considered  with  respect  to  the  five  attributes 
just  mentioned,  furnish  the  observer  with  so  many  simple  charac- 
ters These  simple  characters  Linnaeus  denominates  the  letters  or 
alphabet  of  botany.  By  studing,  comparing,  and,  as  it  were,  spell- 
ing these  letters,  the  student  comes  at  last  to  read  and  understand 
the  generic  characters,  which  the  Creator  has  originally  imprinted 
upon  vegetables. — JVtilne. 

2.  Some  characters  are  more  uniform  and  constant  than  others  ; 
the  parts  of  the  flower  and  fruit  are  more  constant  than  the  other 
parts  of  a  plant ;  and  again,  the  situation,  connexion,  and  pro- 
portion of  these  parts,  more  constant  than  the  number  and 
figure. 

Colour  is  in  general  so  variable,  that  it  is  not  depended  on  as  a 
character,  either  of  genera  or  species. 

3.  In  some  few  genera,  alt  the  parts  of  the  flower 
and 'fruit  are  constant  and  uniform,  as  the  Lily,  Rose* 
Violet,  Iris,  &c. 

4.  In  others,  a  part  only  of  the  frucitiflcation  is  uni- 
form and  constant. 

5.  The  part  that  is  uniform  and  constant  in  all  the 
species  of  the  genus,  is  various  in  various  genera.     In 
the  genus  Anemone,  it  is  the  seeds,  while  the  petals  vary 
from  5  to  9.     In  the  genus  Acer,  Maple,  it  is  the  pecu- 
liar seed-vessel,  furnished  with  a  dilated  wing,  while 

the  other  parts  are  inconstant.  In  Hydrophyllum,  it  is 
the  closed  chinks,  which  are  situated  within  the  co- 
rolla. 


82  GENERA. 

By  taking  into  the  generic  character  a  greater  or 
less  numher  of  marks,  Linnseus  himself  makes  several 
kinds  of  generic  characters.  The  most  important  are 
the  Natural  and  the  Essential. 

1.  The  Natural  character  comprehends  every  possi- 
ble mark,  common  to  all  the  species  of  one  genus  ;  is 
an  enumeration  of  all  the  particulars   in   which  their 
fructifications  agree. 

2.  The  Essential  character  consists  of  an  enumera- 
tion of  those  marks  onl),  which  distinguish  the  genus 
from  all  others.     This  last,  is  the  kind  of  generic  char- 
acter now  universally  adopted,  and  indeed  the  only  one 
in  common  use.     The  excellence  of  the  essential  char- 
acter consists  in  its  brevity  and  perspicuity.      In   ten 
or  twelve  words,   it  frequently  makes  know  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks. 

The  natural  character  is  much  more  lengthy,  and 
does  riot  direct  the  attention,  particularly,  to  those  es- 
sential marks  which  distinguish  the  genus.  It  is  used 
by  Linnaeus  in  his  Genera  Plantarum,  a  work  now  near- 
ly superseded  by  the  essential  characters*  in  his  Systema 
Vegetabilmin9  and  therefore,  in  some  measure  laid  aside. 
Both  the  Natural  and  Essential  characters  are  put 
down  in  the  Cyclopedia. 

Observations.  The  study  of  genera  cannot  be  too  strongly  re- 
commended to  the  young  Bo  anist.  The  science  of  Botany  may 
be  said  to  corsist  principally  in  a  knr wedge  of  them,  and  the 
whole  use  of  the  Classes  and  Orders,  is  to  afford  a  facility,  by 
which  to  arrive  at  this  knowledge.  When  a  Botanist  has  become 
acquainted  with  a  single  species  of  a  genus,  and  by  examining  its 
flower  and  fruit,  fixed  in  his  mind  the  character  of  the  genus,  he 
is  enabled  to  recogrT.ze  all  the  other  species,  which,  in  some  Di- 
stances, are  hundreds,  wherever  he  may  meet  With  them.  TI  is 
serves  to  give  some  idea  of  the  pleasures  and  advantages  of  a 
knowledge  of  genera. 

But  it  is  not  from  books  alone  that  this  knowledge  is  to  be  obtain- 
ed ;  the  student  should  study  plants  themselves  ;  he  should  make  na- 
ture principal,  and  books  auxiliary  In  Botany,  as  well  as  in 
every  other  branch  of  Natural  Hi-tory,  the  objects  themselves 
should  be  studied,  and  books  be  used  as  a  mere  assistance. 


SPECIES.  8S 

The  few  rules  given  above  concerning1  genera  and  their  charac- 
ters can  hardly  be  comprehended  without  some  practical  observa- 
tion. 

Whenever  the  young  botanist  has  an  opportunity,  he  should  exa- 
mine the  several  species  of  the  same  genus,  and  see  how  the  gen- 
eric character  appears  in  each. 

He  should  also  compare  the  characters  of  different  genera.  By 
repeated  efforts  of  this  kind,  he  will  finally  become  acquainted 
with  the  various  affinities  of  plants,  by  which  species  are  united 
into  Genera,  and  Genera  again  into  Natural  Orders,  by  which  all 
the  individuals  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  sustain  a  beautiful  and 
varied  relation  to  each  ether. 

II.  Species. 

1.  SPECIES  are  the  individuals  of  which  a  genus 
consists. 

A  species  more  properly  consists  of  a  number  of  individuals, 
all  of  which  are  essentially  alike  ;  called  different  specimens  of 
the  same  species  ;  for  example,  in  one  orchard  are  several  Apple- 
trees,  which  are  so  many  individuals  of  the  same  species,  Pyr\is 
Mains. 

2.  Any  permanent  peculiarity  is  sufficient  to  consti- 
tute a  species. 

Observation.  If  one  plant  in  a  genus  had  round  leaves,  while 
all  the  rest  had  leaves  of  some  other  form,  such  plant  would  con- 
stitute a  distinct  species. 

THE  SPECIFIC  CHARACTER  consists  of  those  marks 
which  distinguish  one  species  from  all  others  in  the 
genus. 

Specific  characters  are  taken  from  the  number,  j%- 
ure9  situation,  proportion  and  connexion  of  the  roots, 
trunks,  leaves,  and  appendages  ;  also  from  the  inflo- 
rescence, and  such  circumstances  of  the  flower  and 
fruit  as  are  not  appropriated  to  the  other  divisions. 

Observation.  1.  The  most  permanent  characters  are  furnished 
by  those  circumstances  of  a  plant  which  are  most  essentially  con- 
cerned in  its  existence  or  peculiar  habits.  Thus  the  strong*curv- 
ed  prickles  of  the  Sweet-briar  Rose  are  necessary  to  support  this 
"  towering*  queen"  on  other  plants,  and  are  therefore  constant  and 
uniform,  while  in  other  species  of  Rose,  in  which  the  prickles  have 
no  very  essential  part  to  serve,  they  are  variable. 


84  SPECIES. 

2.  Colour,  although  so  conspicuous  a  mark  in  flowers,  is  so  va- 
riable, that  it  is  never  depended  on  as  a  character. 

Take,  for  an  example  of  Generic  and  Specific  char- 
actors,  the  family  of  Lilies,  which  in  Practical  Works 
is  arranged  as  follows. 

Class  VI.  HEXANDRIA,  six  stamens. 

Order  I.  MOJVOGYJVI4,  one  style. 

Genus  LILIUM.  LILY. 

Generic  character.  Calyx  none  ;  corolla  inferiour, 
six  petalled,  the  petals  with  a  longitudinal  groove  from 
the  middle  to  the  hase. 

Species  1.  LIUUM  CANADENSE.  Canada  Lily.  Com- 
mon Yellow  Lily. 

Specific  Character.  Leaves  in  whorls  ;  flowers  ter- 
minal, drooping,  petals  spreading. 

Species  2.  LIUUM  PHIIADELPHICUM.  Common  Red 
Lily. 

Specific  Character.  Leaves  in  whorls;  flowers  erect ; 
corolla  hell-shaped,  petals  with  claws. 

Observation.  I .  The  Cabbage,  Turnip,  and  Kale,  are  so  many 
species  of  one  genus,  Brassica.  The  Apple,  Pear,  and  Quince, 
of  the  genus  Pyrus.  The  Plum  and  Cherry  are  species  of  the 
genus  Prunm.  The  Currant  and  Gooseberry  are  species  of  Ribes. 

°.  A  diagnostic  or  discriminating  description  of  a  plant,  of 
which  the  above  is  an  example,  is  liable  to  differ  very  much 
from  a  general  or  entire  description.  In  a  discriminating  de- 
scription such  points  only  are  noticed  as  are  sufficient  to  distin- 
guish the  plant  successively,  in  classes,  orders,  genera,  and  spe- 
cies from  all  others  In  distinguishing  species  especially,  very 
minute  marks  are  frequently  of  necessity  made  essential,  because 
they  are  the  only  definable  points  in  which  the  species  differs 
from  all  others,  while  some  marks  which  are  prominent,  pass  un- 
noticed because  they  are  common  to  several. 

A  per/eft  or  complete  description  of  an  individual,  made  out  with- 
out any  reference  to  other  plants,  touches  every  point  and  gives, 
as  it  were,  a  complete  picture  of  the  whole  plant.  Such  a  de- 
scription has  been  called  the  Natural  Character  of  the  Species. 

It  is  often  very  convenient  to  note  down  something1  like  an  en- 
tire  description  of  plants,  as  we  find  them,  in  order  to  retain  their 
characters  until  we  can  fir.d  their  distinguishing  description,  or  in 
other  words,  their  generic  and  specific  characters. 


VARIETIES.  85 

It  is  very  well  calculated  to  improve  a  young'  botanist  to  at. 
tempt  an  entire  description  of  all  the  parts  of  a  plant  in  technical 
terms.  By  repeated  attempts  of  this  kind,  the  language  of  bota 
ny  will  become  familiar. 

The  order  to  be  observed  in  such  descriptions,  is  that  of  nature, 
as  follows  :  beginning  with  the  ROOT,  then  the  TRUNKS,  LEAVES, 
A£PEXI)A«KS,  INFLORESCENCE,  FRUCTIFICATION,  &c.  In  describing1 
the  fructification,  b^gin  with  the  external  part,  and  proceed  in- 
ward, thus,  first  the  calyx,  then  the  corolla,  8cc  The  description 
of  each  separate  part  should  be  arranged  in  a  sepaiate  paragraph. 

The  Characters  of  the  Classes  are  taken  from  the 
stamens  ;  those  of  the  Orders  from  the  stamens  and 
pistils,  principally  from  the  pistils  ;  the  Generic  Char- 
acters from  the  other  of  the  seven  parts  of  fructification 
and  such  circumstances  of  the  stamens  and  pistils  as 
are  not  taken  for  the  Classes  and  Orders  ;  and  the  Spe- 
cific Characters  from  all  parts  of  the  plant  except  such 
circumstances  of  the  flower  and  fruit  as  are  taken  for 
Classes,  Orders,  and  Genera. 

VARIETIES,  (varietas)  are  plants  changed  from 
their  usual  appearance  by  some  accidental  cause  ;  the 
various  kinds  of  Apples  are  examples  of  varieties. 
See  page  3. 

Observiitioii  1.  As  many  plants  of  different  form  and  appear- 
ance as  are  produced  from  seed  of  the  same  species,  are  to  be  re- 
garded as  g*enuine  varieties,  and  in  all  cases  to  be  distinguished 
with  great  care  from  the  species. 

2.  Varieties  are  caused  by  culture,  climate,  exposure,  age,  dis- 
ease, luxuriance    or   poverty  of  nourishment,    and    some   other 
causes. 

3.  Gardeners  by  various  methods  of  culture  produce  innumer- 
able varieties,  especially  of  double  flowers. 

4.  Varieties  in  colour  are  very  common. 

We  have  now  explained  the  terms  of  botany,  as  ap- 
plied to  the  external  forms  of  plants,  illustrated  the 
Classes  and  Orders  of  Lirmseus,  and  given  a  brief  out- 
line of  Genera  and  Species  ;  an  understanding  of 
which  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  discriminating  plants* 
It  remains  to  explain 
8 


86  METHOD  TO  FIND  OUT 

The  method  to  take  tojind  out  an  unknown  plant. 

Observation.  As  the  most  important  distinctions  are  founded 
on  the  flower,  the  only  proper  time  for  examining  a  plant  is  when 
it  is  in  flower. 

When  a  botanist  lias  obtained  a  plant  in  flower,  he 
determines,  in  the  first  place,  by  inspecting  the  flower, 
to  what  class  it  belongs,  and  to  what  order  in  that 
class.  He  next  refers  to  some  practical  work,  such  as 
Dr.  Bigelow's  "  Plants  of  Boston,"  Eaton's  "Man- 
ual," or  Pursh's  "  Flora,"  in  which  the  plant  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  described,  and  turns  to  the  class  and  or- 
der pointed  out  by  the  flower.  Next  reads  over  the 
generic  characters  in  that  order,  carefully  observing 
the  particulars  of  the  fructification  mentioned,  until 
one  is  found  which  applies.  This  gives  him  the  gen- 
eric or  family  name  which  is  prefixed  to  the  character. 
Lastly  he  turns  to  the  specific  characters  of  the  genus, 
reads  them  over,  and  observes  the  particulars  men- 
tioned until  he  finds  the  one  which  applies.  To  this  is 
prefixed  the  specific  name.  Thus  he  discovers  the  tech- 
nical name  of  the  individual  ;  which  was  the  object. 
This  is  generally  accompanied  with  the  synonims,  one 
or  more  English  names,  and  references  to  figures. 

By  means  of  the  name  he  is  enabed  to  refer  to  what- 
ever may  have  been  written  concerning  it.  And  also 
to  refer  to  its  place  in  the  Natural  Orders,  and  thus 
see  to  what  other  genera  it  is  allied. 

To  be  convinced  of  the  great  utility  of  an  artificial  system  in  con- 
ducting1 to  the  knowledge  of  plants,  let  us  suppose  the  number  of 
known  species  of  plants  to  be  twelve  thousand,  and  the  number  of 
classes  in  a  certain  known  method,  to  be  twenty-four.  A  plant  is 
presented  to  me  which  I  have  never  seen.  1  immediately  look  for 
the  general  character,  which  serves  to  distinguish  each  of  the 
twenty- four  classes.  This  being  found,  and  consequently  the 
class  of  the  plant  being  determined,  1  have  no  longer  to  look  for 
my  plant  among  twelve  thousand,  but,  on  a  supposition  that  each 
class  contains  an  equal  number,  among  live  hundred  only  the 
twenty-fourth  part  of  the  number  just  supposed.  I  next  look  for 
the  character  of  the  order,  the  second  division,  which  being  like- 
wise found,  will  reduce  the  number  to  about  an  hundred.  The 
character  of  the  genus,  which  I  next  explore,  will  reduce  the 
number  still  further,  to  twenty,  for  instance^that  of  the  species 
determines  the  plant  in  question. 


UNKNOWN  PLANTS.  tf< 

This  method  of  proceeding  is  similar  to  that  which  is  observed 
in  turning-  over  a  dictionary,  where,  in  searching  for  a  word,  as 
FAME,  we  first  look  for  the  letter  F,  then  A,  and  so  successively 
the  M  and  E.  F  may  represent  the  class,  A  the  order,  M  the  ge- 
nus, and  E  the  species.— Milne. 

Observation.  1  It  happens  in  some  instances  in  the  Linnaean 
system,  that  a  particular  species  has  the  character  of  some  other 
class  or  order  than  the  one  to  which  the  other  species  of  the 
same  genus  belong.  Thus  the  Fringed  Gentian  has  only  four 
stamens,  while  the  other  species  of  the  genus  have  5.  Some  spe- 
cies of  Cerastium  have  only  4,  others  5,  stamens,  though  the 
greater  part  have  10.  This  is  an  imperfection  in  the  classes  and 
orders,  and  as  the  different  species  of  the  same  g'enus  must  nevei 
be  separated  by  artificial  arrangements,  such  species  are  not  plac 
ed  in  the  class  and  order  whose  character  they  have,  but  are  re- 
tained with  the  other  species  of  their  genus  in  another  class  and 
order.  Their  names  however  are  put  down  in  italics  by  Linnaeus 
in  the  class  and  order  to  which  they  would  be  referred  by  the 
stamens  and  styles.  This  obviates  the  difficulty  which  would 
otherwise  arise  to  the  student,  and  enables  him  to  refer  to  the 
plant  by  the  index. 

2.  There  is  generally  a  relation  in  the  numbers  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  flower.      Thus  the  Lily  has  6  petals,  6  stamens, 
stigma  3-cleft,  capsule  3«celled.     The  Rose  has  its  calyx  5-parted 
and  corolla  5-petalled.     In  Trillium  this  uniformity  of  numbers  is 
so  remarkable  as  to  give  name   to   the   genus.      It  has  3  leaves  ; 
the  flower  has  the  calyx  3-leaved,  corolla  3  petalled,  stamens  6, 
stigmas  3,  capsule  3-celled. 

This  often  gives  a  clue  to  the  class  and  order  of  an  unknown 
plant  when  it  is  in  fruit.  The  benefit  of  which  I  have  frequent- 
ly had  the  satisfaction  to  avail  myself  of,  either  by  the  divisions  of 
a  permanent  caiyx,  the  number  of  valves  or  cells  of  the  capsule 
or  the  number  of  seeds. 

3.  Sometimes  from  poverty   of  nourishment   or   some  other 
cause,  flowers  are  found  to  have  a  less  number  of  divisions  in  all 
their  parts  than  usual ;  or  a  greater  number  from  abundance  of 
nourishment. 

The  Epigaa  usually  has  its  calyx  and  corolla  5-parted,  stamens 
10,  capsule  5-celled  ;  but  some  of  its  flowers  occasionally  have  a 
fifth  part  wanting,  thus  :  calyx  and  corolla  4-parted,  stamens  8, 
capsule  4  celled 

4.  In  some  plants  the  terminal  flowers  have  a  greater  number  of 
divisions  than  the  latteral  ones.      Ex.  Some  species  of  Jllonotropa 
have  their  terminal  flowers  with  10  petals,  10  stamens,  capsule  5- 
valved,  &c.  while  the  lateral  ones  have  a  fifth  part  wanting,  thus  : 
petals  8,  stamens  8,  capsule  4-celled,  &c. 


88  POISONOUS  PLANTS. 

The  student  will  observe  that  the  genera  in  each  order  of  Lin- 
naiis  are  arranged  according1  to  their  natural  affinities  ;  thus  com- 
bining-, as  far  as  may  be,  the  advantages,  both  of  a  Natural  and 
an  Artificial  method. 

Tt  has  already  been  observed,  that  plants  which  agree  in  their 
most  essential  external  characters,  agree  also  in  their  properties. 
Of  course  certain  qualities  will  be  indicated  by  particular  exter- 
nal marks — See  page  80  St  91.  Upon  this  principle  are  construct- 
ed the  following 

Mules  to  distinguish  Poisonous  Plants. 

1.  Plants  with  glumes,  as  the  grasses,  never  poisonous.     They 
belong  mostly  to  Triandria 

2.  Plants  with  5  stamens  and  1  pistil,  Pentandria,  Monogynia, 
of  a  dark  gloomy  aspect  andnauoeous  smell,  are  narcotic  and  dan- 
gerous.    Kx.  Thorn-apple,  Datura  ;  Henbane,   Hyo&eyamus  ;  To- 
bacco, Nicotiana 

3.  Plants  of  Pentandria  Digynia,  bearing  umbels,  are  poisonous 
if  th,'y  grow  in  wet  soil  and  have  a  nauceous   odour ;  Kx.   Hem- 
lock, Conium  ;  Water  parsnip,  Slum  ;  Water-hemlock,  Cicuta. 

Observation.  The  cicnta  maculuta  is  an  exception  to  a  part  of 
the  rule,  being  aromatic  and  still  a  deadly  poison.  It  is  on  that 
account  the  more  dangerous.  It  has  destroyed  some  children 
lately,  the  root  being  mistaken  and  eaten  by  them  for  Angelica. — 
See  I)r.  Bigelow's  Medical  Botany. 

If  they  grow  on  dry  soil  and  have  an  agreeable  odour,  they  are 
healthful  aromatics,  as  Coriander,  Carui,  Fennel. 

4.  Plants  with  stamens  inserted  on  the  calyx,  whether  they  be 
few,  as  in  the  Currant,  or  numerous,    as   in   the  class  Icosar,driat 
have    wholesome  fruits,    as   Apple,  Plum,    Strawberry,  Currant. 
The  other  parts  of  the  plant  should  be  suspected. 

5  ^Plants  with  rir.gent  corollas  and  naked  seeds  arc  mostly 
aromatic,  and  none  of  them  poisonous,  as  Sweet  Marjoram,  Cat- 
mint, Hyssop,  Motherwort.  They  belong  chiefly  to  Didynamia 
Gymnospermia 

6.  Plants  with  labiate  corollas,  and  seeds  in  a  seed-vessel,  are,  in 
some   instances,  narcotic,  as  Fox-glove,   Digitalis.      They   belong 
to    Didynnwia  Jlngospermia,  and  have  generally  personate  flowers. 

7.  Plants  of  the  1.5th  Class,  Tetradynamia*  having  cruciform  flow- 
ers, rarely,  if  ever,  poisonous,  but  are  many  of  them  used  as  food  ; 
:is  Cabbage,  Turnip,  Radish,  and  Mustard 

8.  Plants  with  butterfly  shaped    flowers,    belonging  mostly   to 
.'Diadelphia,  very  rarely  poisonous  ;  many  of  them  are  used  for  food  ; 
as  Pea  and   Bean.      Wild  Indigo,  Podalyria  tinctoriat  is  an  excep- 
tion, being1  emetic  and  cathartic. 

9.  Planis  of  the  19th  Class,   Syngenetia,  having  compound  flow- 
ers, are  rarely  poisonous  ;  as  Sunflower,  Dandelion  and  Thistle^ 


NATURAL  ORDERS.  89 

10.  Plants   which   have  a  milky  juice,  unless  compound,  are 
poisonous  ;  as  Dog's-bane,  Jlpocymun  ;  Milkweed,  Asclefiias. 

11.  Plants  having  any  appendage  to  the  calyx   or  corolla,  and  8 
or  more  stamens,  generally  poisonous  ;  as  Columbine,   Jlquilegia  ; 
Monk's-hood. — See  Eaton's  Manual,  page  11. 

We  have  now  gone  through  with  what  is  necessary  to  become 
acquainted  with  genera  and  species,  in  a  knowledge  of  which  Bo- 
tanical science  principally  consists.  The  next  chapter  contains 
some  observations  on  Natural  Orders,  and  the  general  relations  of 
plants,  of  which  the  student  cannot  possibly  form  a  very  definite 
conception,  until  he  is  more  or  less  acquainted  with  genera.  It  is 
well  enough  however  for  him  to  read  them,  but  he  must  not  be 
dissatisfied  with  himself  or  discouraged  if  he  does  not  at  once  un- 
derstand them  in  every  particular. 


CHAP.  III. 

NATURAL  ORDERS. 

A  NATURAL  ORDER  consists  of  a  number  of 
genera,  which  are  allied  to  each  other  by  botanical  af- 
finities ;  which  have  an  evident  agreement  with  each 
other  in  some  of  their  most  essential  parts. 

In  a  Natural  Method  the  Artificial  Divisions,  Classes 
and  Orders  are  set  aside  and  the  vegetable  kingdom 
stands  divided,  first  into  those  primary  divisions, 
NATURAL  ORDERS,  which  nature  has  marked  out. 
These  are  divided,  in  the  next  place,  as  artificial  classes 
and  orders  are,  into  genera ;  and  the  genera  into  species. 

The  Artificial  arrangement  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  into  Clases 
and  Orders,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  name  and  history 
of  an  unknown  plant  in  an  easy  and' direct  manner,  was  thought 
by  Linnseus  to  be  a  matter  of  necessity  ;  because  Natural  Orders 
cannot  be  stamped  with  a  single  definite  character  by  which  the 
individuals  of  each  might  be  readily  knovvn  But  still  he  consid- 
ered a  Natural  method  as  the  perfection  of  Botanical  science. — See 
page  64. 

Take  a  fruit  garden  for  an  example  of  a  natural  or- 
der. The  Cherry  and  Plum  are  two  species  of  the 
genus  Prunus  ;  Peach  and  Flowering  Almond,  two 

8* 


90  tfATtJJ&AL  ORDERS. 

species  of  Amygdalus  ;  Pear,  Apple  and  Quince,  three 
species  of  Pyrus  ;  Currant  and   Gooseberry,  two  spe 
cies  of  Ribes.    These  all  belong  to  the  same  Natural 
Order,  POMACEJE  of  Linnaeus. 

Observation  The  relation  between  these  several  genera  is 
obvious  even  to  a  common  observer,  by  their  habit*  or  general 
aspect. 

These  relations  may  he  represented  in  the  following 
manner  : 

NATURAL  ORDER.         GENEHA.  SPECIES. 

~Prunus.         {Cherry, 
|  Plum. 


POMACEJS.- 


Jhnygdab*.  |  Bering  Almond, 


f  Pear, 


Pyms.  -j  Apple, 

I  Quince. 

Ribes  -f Currant' 

|  Gooseberry. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  to- 
wards the  following  general  relations,  upon  which 
Natural  Divisions,  such  as  Natural  Orders,  Genera, 
&c.  are  (bunded. 

1.  All  the  individuals  which  compose1  it  are   united 
by  affinities  into  one  common  bond,  in  which  there  is  a 
gradual  transition  from  one  point  to  another,  the  vari- 
ous individuals  standing  as  so  many  points  of  an  ex- 
tended series,  or  so  many  links  of  a  continued  chain. 
Thus  one  plant  has  a  certain  set  of  characters  ;  anoth- 
er loses  some  of  these   and  acquires  some  new  ones; 
another  loses  some  more,  and  acquires  other  new  ones, 
<S;c,  until  the  two  extremes  are  quite  different  from  each 
other. 

2.  In  this  general  series  Natural  Orders  are  related 
to  each  other.  The  various  Gercra  of  the  same  natural 
order  are  related  on  one  extreme  with  one  natural  or- 
der, and,  passing  through  a  gradual   series,   approach 

*  By  habit  in  botany  is  meant  the  general  port  or  appearance  of  a  plant,  which 
strikes  the  observer  at  once,  and  cannot  be  very  well  denned. 


NATURAL   ORDERS.  91 

another  on  the  other  extreme.  Some  genera  seem  to 
hold  an  intermediate  place  between  two  orders. 

3.  The  various  species  of  the  same  genus  are  in  the 
same  way  allied,  on  one  extreme,  to  one  genus,  and,  on 
the  other,  to  another. 

Although  there  is  an  evident  tendency  to  the  above 
conditions,  yet  they  are  not  universally  true.  They 
require  to  be  very  much  modified,  as  follows  : 

1.  The  relations,  of  genera  particularly,  in  the  series, 
instead  of  being  single  and  simple  as  above,  are,  in 
many   cases,  compound  and  complicated.       Thus  a 
plant  is  not  only  allied  in  certain  .points  to  those  which 
are  considered  next  to  it,  but  it  is  related  in   other 
points  to  various  other  plants,   holding  a  place  more 
remote  in  the  series. 

If  we  represent  the  series  of  relations  by  a  chain,  it 
would  not  consist  of  single,  simple  links,  but  the  links 
in  different  parts,  would  be  variously  looped  together. 

2.  The  series  is  variously  interrupted  ;  in  many  in- 
stances  some   links   appear  to  he   wanting.      Many 
plants  are  not  connected  at  all  and  constitute  solitary 
links. 

Observation,  Xaturalists  have  an  opinion  thai  these  deficiences 
do  not  really  exist  in  nature,  but  are  occasioned  by  our  partial 
knowledge  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  This  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion, that  a  large  portion  of  the  vegetable  world  lies  yet  unexplor- 
ed, and  attaches  additional  importance  to  new  discoveries. 

3.  Some  natural  orders   are  strikingly  marked,  all 
their  genera  being  very  similar  among  themselves,  and 
evidently  distinct  from  all   others,  scarcely  showing 
any  tendency  to  a  gradual  transition  from  one  point  to 
another.     Such  are  the  Grasses,  Umbelliferous  plants, 
and  Compound  flowers. 

4.  Many  genera  are  no  less  strikingly  natural,  the 
species  holding  a  very  close  affinity  among  themselves, 
and  differing  essentially  from  all  other  genera,  as  the 
genus  Rose,  and  Violet.     These  are  the  most  perfect 
examples  of  genera. 


92  NATURAL  ORDERS 

Observation.  1.  If  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom  was  in  this  way 
distributed  into  definite  natural  tribes  or  classes,  the  study  of 
botany  on  such  a  plan  would  be  easy  and  satisfactory,  and  an  ar- 
tificial system  would  hardly  be  needed. 

2.  It  was  atone  time  a  desideratum  with  Naturalists  to  dicover 
a  perfect  and  complete  natural  method.     Although  they  have  read- 
ily done  it  to  a  certain  extent,  yet  on  account  of  the  difficulties  al- 
ready mentioned  above,  No,  1  &  2,  the   natural  orders  are  still  in 
some  measure  incomplete,  and  a  number  of  plants  remain  unasso- 
ciated. 

3.  The  Linnsean  order,  Polygynia,  in  Class  Icosandria,  to  which 
belong  the  Rose,  Raspberry,  Strawberry,  and  Cmquefoil,  affords  one 
of  the  most  perfect  examples  possible,  of  a  natural  assemblage,  of 
which  all  the  genera  are  natural^  and  so  well  distinguished  in  hab- 
it, that  any  person,  at  all  observant  of  plants,  ma)  know  them  by 
their  foliage,  inflorescence  or  general  appearance,  while  their  fruit 
affords  clear  essential  generic  characters.      The  natural  family  of 
Orchidae  come  very  near  the  same  point  of  perfection,  but  their 
differences  of  habit  are    less   obvious.     Such   instances  ought  to 
stimulate  the  philosophical  Kotonist  "  to  go  on  from  one  degree  of 
perfection  to  another,"  though,  like  the  Christian   moralist,  he 
cannot  hope  to  reach  the  summit. — Smith. 

4.  It  is  impossible  for  a  person  to  form  a  proper  conception  of 
natural  orders  until  he  is  acquainted  with  a  number  of  genera,  so 
that  lie  can  bring  together  their  characters  and  compare  them  at 
once  in  his  own  mind. 

The  student  of  Natural  History,  who  gets  introduced  to  the  veg- 
etable kingdom  by  Linnaeus's  artificial  system,  and  prosecutes  the 
subject  from  the  book  of  nature,  will,  independently  of  any  system 
of  natural  orders  of  Linnaeus,  of  Jussieu,  or  any  one  else,  observe 
Nature's  method,  will  observe  the  family  affinities  of  the  several 
plants  he  becomes  acquainted  with,  thus  forming-  a  sort  of  natural 
system  in  his  own  mind. 

Linnaeus  called  his  scheme  of  Natural  Orders,  Frag- 
ments of  a  Natural  Method.  The  Natural  Orders  of 
Jussieu  are  said  to  be  an  improvement  on  those  of 
Linnaeus.  Those  of  Linnseus  are  subjoined,  as  they  are 
more  connected  with  his  artificial  system. 

Linnaeus  expresses  an  opinion,  that  plants  which  are 
allied  by  botanical  affinities,  possess  similar  medicinal 
properties.  The  sensible  qualities^  as  taste  and  scent, 
must  however  be  regarded. 


OF  LINN^US.  93 


These  give  a  general  indication,  but  so  many  qualifi- 
cations are  necessary  in  -particular  cases,  that  the  ad- 
ministration of  plants  as  remedies,  must  still  rest  on 
experience.  See  observation,  page  80. 

NATURAL  ORDERS  or 


1.  PALM.E.  Palms  and  palm-like  plants  ;  as  Cocoa- 
nut,  Cocos  ;  Date-tree,  Phoenix. 

2.  PIPERIT.E.     Pepper  and  other  plants  agreeing 
with  it  in  habit  and  sensible  qualities,      Indian-turnip, 
drum  ;  Skunk-cabbage,  Dracontium. 

3.  CALAMARIJE.  Grasses  with  culms  without  joints  ; 
as  Sedge,  Carcx  ;  Cat-tail,  Typha. 

4.  GRAMINA.     Grasses  with  jointed  culms,  and  a 
glume  calyx  ;  Wheat,  Triticum  ;  Rye,  Secale  ;  Barley, 
Hordcum;  Oats,  Jtoena  ;  Herdsgrass,  Pfdeum  ;  Indian- 
corn,  Zea. 

5.  TRIPETALOJD^.  (Tm,  three,  an&petalum,  a  pe- 
tal.)    Plants   with   three   petals  ;  as  Water-plantain, 
Misma;  Rush,  Junciis  ;  Arrow-head,  Saggitlaria. 

6.  ENSATJS,    (Ensis9  a  sword.)   Plants  with  sword- 
shaped  leaves  $  as  Flower-de-luce,  Jra;  Blue-eyed  grass, 
Sisyrinchium  ;  Virginian  Spider-wort,  Tradescantia. 

Observation.  Very  nearly  allied  to  the  grasses  and  liliaceous  plants. 

t 

T.  ORCHIDE/E.  Roots  fleshy  ;  leaves  sessile,  nerved  ; 
flowers  irregular,  five  petalled,  gynandrous  ;  pollen 
glutinous;  germ  inferiour  ;  as  Orchis  ;  Ladies'  slip- 
per, Cypripedium  ;  Jlrethusa  ;  Cymbidiiim. 

3.  SCITAMINE.E  (Scitamenfatm,  a  dainty.)  Consists 
of  plants  which  furnish  exquisite  fruits,  and  of  others 
which  have  an  agreeable  aromatic  flavour  ;  as  Ban- 
ana, Musa  ;  Ginger,  dinomum. 

9.  SPATHACEJE.    Corolla  liliaceous,  calyx  a  spathe  ; 
as  Onion,  Miinm  ;  Daffodil,  Narcissus. 

10.  CORONARI^:.      (Corona,  a  wreath.)     Liliaceous 

4b 

*  Mr.  Eaton,  in  his  Manual  of  Botany,  2d  ed.  has  given  the  Natural  Orders  of 
Linnaeus  and  the  qualities  of  each  ;  and  also  the  Natural  Orders  of  Jussieu,  with  av 
catalogue,  under  each,  of  the  genera  belonging  to  it. 


94  1STATURAX  ORDERS 

plants  without  spaces  ;  as  Lily,  Lilium  ;  Tulip,  Tu- 
lipri  ;  Crown-Imperial,  Fritittaria  ;  Hyacinth,  Hya- 
cinthus  ;  Hypoxis  ;  Fine-apple,  Bromelia. 

11.  SARMENTACEJE.     (Sarmentum,   a   shoot.      Co- 
rollas liliaceous,  stems  weak  or  climbing.    Asparagus  ; 
Smilax;  Solomon's  seal,  Convallaria;  Adder's- Tongue, 
Erythronium. 

12.  HOLERACEJE.     (Hilus,  pot-herhs.)    Consists  of 
plants  used  for  culinary  purposes ;  as  Beet,  Beta  ;  Rhu- 
barb, Eheum  ;  Dock,  Rumex. 

Observation.     Flowers  generally  small  and  destitute  of  beauty. 

13.  SUCCULENTS.     Flat,  fleshy,  succulent  plants, 
most  of  v\hich  are  evergreen;  as  Prickly-pear,  Cac- 
tus; House-leek,  Sempervivum  ;  Furslain,  Portulacca. 

14.  GRUINAJ.ES.     (Grus,  a  crane.)     Geranium  and 
its  relatives.  Flowers  5-petalled,  seed-vessels  generally 
5  cornered  and  beaked.      Geranium  ;  Flax,  Linum  ; 
Wood-sorrel,  0,Talis. 

15.  INUNDATE.     Plants  growing  under  water  ;  as 
Bippuris  ;  Potamogeton. 

16.  CALYCIFLOK^.    (Calyx,  &Jlos,  a  flower.)     Co- 
rollas wanting,  stamens  on  the  calyx,  fruit  pulpy  ;  as 
Seed  Buckthorn,  Hippophaw  ;  Poet's  Cassia,  Osijris. 

1".  CALYCANTJIEM.^.  (Calyx,  &  «v^$,  a  flower.) 
Corolla  and  stamens  inserted  into  the  ( alyx  ;  as  Wil- 
low-herb, Epilobium  ;  Primrose,  (Enothem. 

18.  BICORNES.    (Bis,  two,  &  cornu,  a  horn.)  Plants 
with  horned  anthers  ;  as  Whortle-berry,  Vaccinnium  ; 
JIndromeda  ;  Partridge-bush,  Gault/ieria. 

19.  HESPERIDJB.      (Hesperides,  whose  orchards,  ac- 
cording to  the  poets,  produced  golden  fruits.)     Golden 
or  precious  fruit     Aromatics.     Calyx  permanent  su- 
periour,  stamens  inserted  into  it  ;  as  Clove-tree,  Canj- 
ophyllous  ;  Allspice,  Myrtus  ;  Mock-orange  or  Syrin- 
ga,  PhUadelphus. 

20.  ROTACEJE.  (7?o/o,  a  wfceel.)  Corolla  wheel-shap- 
ed.    Rock-rose,  Cistus  :  St.  John's  wort.  Hypericnm 


or  Litfxjsus.  95 

21.  PRECISE.    (Precius,  early.)     Primula,  and  a  few 
genera  allied  to  it  in  habit,  though   riot,  always  in  the 
character  expressed  in  the  title ;  as  Itiapemia$  B  *g~ 
bean,  Meniantlits. 

22.  CARYOPHYLLEI.     (Caryophyttus,  a  pink.)     Co- 
rollas pink-iike,  branches  opposite,  axillary,  leaves  op- 
posite. Pink,  Diantlius  ;  Cockle,  Jlgroisttmma  ;  Chick- 
weed,  btellaria, 

23.  TRIHILATLE.     (Tres,  three,  &  hilum9  the  eye  of 
the  seed.)     Plants  with  3 -seeded  cap-ulrs,  seeds  mark- 
ed with  a  hilurn  or  scar.    Bead-tree,  Mdia  ;  Maple, 
Jlcer  ;  Horse-chesnut,  JEscuiis ;  Nasturtion,    Trapceo- 
lum. 

24.  CORYDALES.     (^t'«,  a  helmet.)      Plants   with 
peculiar  irregular   corolids,   somewhat   resembling   a 
helmet.     Fumitory,  Fumaria  ;  Balsam,  Tmpatiens. 

25.  PUTAMIXK^J.     (Putamen,  a  shell.)     Consisting 
of  plants  whose  fleshy  seed-vessel  is  frequently  cover- 
ed with  a  hard  woody  shell.      Caper-bush,   Capparis  ; 
Calabash-tree,  Crescentia. 

26.  MIH.TISH,IQ,UJB.      (Multus,  many,  &  sttiqua,  a 
pod.)     Plants  having  many  dry  capsules  or  numerous 
distinct  naked  seeds.     Columbine,  JHquilegia  ;  LarS's- 
spur,  Delphinium  ;  Buttercup,  Ranunculus  ;  Anemone. 

27.  HHCEADEJE.    (Rhceas,  Red  Poppy.)   Plants  with 
caducous  calyxes  ;  containing  a  red  or  a  milky  juice. 
Poppy,  Papcmer  ;  Bloodroot,  Sanguenaria  ;  Celandine, 
Chelidonium. 

28.  LURID^.      (Lundus9  dark  gloomy.)      Corollas 
monopetalous,    flowers  pentandrous  or   didynamous, 
with  superiour  capsules.     Thorn-apple,  Datura;  Fox- 
glove,  Digitalis  ;    Tobacco,   Nicotiana  ;  Nightshade, 
Solanum. 

29.  CAMPANACE^;.     (Campana,  a  bell.)     Flowers 
more  or  less  bell -shaped  ;  as  Campanula  ;  Convalvo- 
lus  ;  Lobelia;  Violet,  Viola. 

SO.  CONTORTS.  (Con,  together,  &  torquco,  to 
twist.)  Corollas  twisted.  Periwinkle,  Vinca;  DogV 
bane,  Jlpocynum  ;  Milkweed,  Jlsclepias. 


96  NATURAL  ORDERS 

31.  VEPRECU;UB.     (Fq?m,  a  bramble.)      Corollas 
mortopetalous,  coloured ;  berry  superiour,  one-seeded. 
Mf-zereon,  Daphne  ;  Leather-wood,  Direa. 

32.  PAPILIONACE^:.     (Paplw,  a  Butterfly.)    Flow- 
ers butterfly -shaped.    Bean  \  Pea  ;  Locust-tree,  Robi- 
nia  ;  Glover,  Trifolium. 

33.  LOMEJVTACJLE.       Corollas  not  perfectly  butter- 
fly-shaped. Stamina  distinct,  fruit  leguminous  ;  as  Cas- 
sia ;  Sensitive  plant,  Mimosa;  Milk- wort,  Poly  gala. 

34.  CUCURBITACE^:.   (( 'ucurbita9  a  gourd.)  Gourd- 
like  plants ;  as  Pumpkin,   Cucurbtta  ;  Cucumber  and 
Melon,  Cucnmis;  Passion-flower,  Passtflora. 

35.  SENTICOS^E.     (Sznlis,  a  briar.)     Prickly  plants. 
Mostly  Pentapetalous  and   Icosandrous.     Raspberry  ; 
Strawberry  \  Rose  ;  Avens,  Geum  ;    Cinquefoil,  Po« 
tentilla. 

Observation.     Nearly  allied  to  POMACEJE. 

36.  POMACEJE,     (Pomum.  an  apple.)     Plants  with  a 
pulpy,  esculent  fruit ;  as  Apple  and  Pear,  Pyrus  ;  Cur- 
rant ;  Peach  ;  Plum. 

37.  COLUMNIEER.E.      (CoZu?n?irt,  a  pillar,  &  fero,  to 
bear.)     Plants  whose  stamens  and  pistils  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  column  or  pillar  in  the  centre  of  the  flow- 
er.    Hollyhock,  Mcea  ;  Mallows,  Malva. 

Observation.     Many  of  them  monadelpbous. 

38.  TRICOCCJE.     (*?*/*,   three,  &   x,o%x.o$9  a  grain.) 
Capsule  3-cornered,  3-celled,  cells   1 -seeded  ;  as  Box, 
Buxus  ;  Palma-Christi,  Iticinus. 

39.  SJLI^UOS.E.     (Siliqua,  a  pod.)      Flowers  cross- 
sliaped.     Tetradynamous,  seed-vessel  a  silique.     Rad- 
ish ;  Mustard  ;  Cabbage. 

40.  PERSONATE.    (Persona*  a  mask.)    Flowers  per- 
sonate ;    as   Toad-flax,    Antirrhinum;  Snake's-head, 
Chelone. 

41.  ASPERIFOLT^.     (JUiper,  rough,  &  folium,  a  leaf.) 
Leaves   rough.      Corolla   monapetalous,    stamens  5, 


OF  I/INNJEUS.  97 

seeds  4,  naked.     Borage,  Borago  ;  Comfrey,  Sy-mphy- 
tum. 

42.  VERTICILLATJB,    ( Verticillus,  a  whorl.)    Flow- 
ers in   whorls,   corollas   labiate,  as  Hyssop  ;  Mint; 
Marjoram,  Origanum  ;  Sage,  SaMa  ;  Thyme,    Thy- 
mus. 

43.  DUMOSJB.      (Dumus,  a   hush.)     Bushy  plants, 
with  small   flowers.      Stamens  4,  5,  6  or  10.     Elder, 
Sambucus;  Sumach,  Wins;  Snuwball,  Viburnum;  Staff- 
tree,  Cdastrus  ;  Holly,  Ilex. 

44.  SEPIARIJE.      (Sepes,   a   hedge.)       Ornamental 
shruhs,  vuth  few   stamens.     Lilac,   Syringa  ;    Privet, 
Ligustrum. 

45.  UMBEIXAT.E.      Flowers  in  umbels,  corollas  5- 
petalled,  stamens  5,  styles  2,  seeds  2  naked.  Carrot ; 
Parsnip  ;  Carui. 

46.  HEDERACEJS*     (Iledera,   Ivy.)     Petals  5,  sta- 
mens 5,  fruit  berry -like.      Vine,  Vitis  ;  Jlralia  ;  Gin- 
seng, Panax. 

47.  STE1.I.ATJ5.     (Stella,  a  star.)     Leaves  whorled, 
seeds  2,  naked.     Dogwood,  Cornus  ;  Madder,  Rubia  ; 
Galium. 

48.  AGGREGATE.    (Jlggregare9  to  assemble,)  Flow- 
ers aggregate  ;  as  Teazel,  Dipsacus  ;  Boerhaavia. 

49.  COMPOSITE.  Compound  flowers  ;  as  Dandelion  ; 
Thistle ;  Sunflower. 

Observation.     Belonging  to  class  Syngenesia. 

50.  AMENTACE^:.       Bearing    aments  ;    as    Oak  ; 
Chesnut ;  Willow  ;  Alder. 

Observation.     Principally  trees. 

51.  CONIFERS.    Consisting  of  cone-hearing  plants  ; 
as  Pine,  Hemlock-tree,  and  Spruce,  Pinus  ;  Juniper*, 
Jnniperus  ;  Cedar,  Cupressus. 

Observation.     Mostly  trees. 

52.  COABUNAT^E.      (Coadunctre,  to  join  together.) 
Several  seed-vessels  united  somewhat   at  their  base, 

9 


'?8  NATURAL  OKDERS 

forming  a  sort  of  cone  ;  as  Tulip-tree,  Liriodend ron  ; 
Magnolia. 

53.  SCA^RID^B.     (#cft6er,  rough.)      Leaves  rough, 
flowers  destitute  of  beauty  ;  as  Elm  ;   Nettle  $  Hop ; 
Hemp. 

Observation.    Rougher  than  those  of  the  41st  order,  Aspen  folia. 

54.  MISCELLANEA.     Plants  unconnected. 

55.  FILICES.     Ferns,  Brakes,  Polypod,  &c. 

56.  Musci.     Mosses. 

57>  ALGJB.     Flags,  Liverworts,  Lichens,  and  Sea- 
weeds. 
58.  FuffGi.     Mushrooms. 

Observation.    These  four  last  constitute  the  Linnsean  class  Cryp* 
ivgamia,  which  see. 


PART  V. 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  otf  VEGETABLES. 

THIS  comprehends  an  account  of  the  internal  or- 
gans, and  the  functions  they  perform. 

Plants  are  organic  bodies,  containing  cells,  vesicles* 
absorbents,  tubes,  &c.  which  being  disposed  in  regular 
order  and  qualified  with  the  principle  of  vitality,  arc 
the  laboratory  in  which  nature  produces  the  phenome- 
na of  vegetation. 

Plants  as  well  as  animals  then  are  endowed  with  the 
principle  of  life  or  vitality,  a  principle  which  minerals 
do  not  possess ;  «  they  are  living  organized  beings." 

If  it  be  asked  what  this  principle  of  life  or  vitality  is,  we  must 
own  our  complete  ignorance.  We  know  it,  as  we  know  its  omnip- 
otent Author,  by  its  effects. 

The  effects  of  vitality  are  stupendous  beyond  conception,  in  the 
operations  constantly  going  on  in  every  organized  body,  from  our 
own  elaborate  frame  to  the  humblest  moss  or  fungus. 

Those  different  fluids  which  compose  the  eye,  so  fine  and  trans- 
parent, separated  from  each  other  by  membranes  as  fine,  all  retain 
their  proper  situations  (though  each  fluid  individually  is  perpetu- 
ally  removed  and  renewed)  for  sixty,  eighty,  or  an  hundred  years 
or  more,  while  the  principle  of  life  remains. 

So  do  the  infinitely  small  vessels  of  an  almost  invisible  insect, 
the  fine  and  pellucid  tubes  of  a  plant,  all  hold  their  destined 
fluids,  conveying  or  changing  them  according  to  fixed  laws,  but 
never  permitting  them  to  run  into  confusion  so  long  as  the  vital 
principle  anftnafes  their  various  forms.  But  no  sooner  does  death 
happen,  than  witlwut  any  apparent  alteration  of  structure,  any  ap- 
parent change  in  the ir  material  configuration,  all  is  reversed.  The 
eye  loses  its  form  and  brightness ;  its  membranes  let  go  their 
contents,  which  mix  in  confusion,  and  thenceforth  yield  to  the 
laws  of  chemistry  alone.  Just  so  it  happens,  sooner  or  later,  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  frame. 

Chemicai  changes,  putrefaction  and  destruction  immediately 
follow  the  total  privation  of  life,  the  importance  of  which  instant* 
ly  becomes  evident  when  it  is  no  moret 


1 00  GERMINATION. 

I  humbly  conceive  therefore,  that  if  the  human  understanding 
can,  in  any  case,  flatter  itself  with  obtaining  in  the  natural  world,  a 
glimpse  of  the  immediate  agency  of  Deity,  it  is  in  the  contempla- 
tion of  this  vital  principle,  which  seems  independent  of  material 
organization,  and  an  impulse  of  his  own  divine  energy.— 


CHAP.  I. 

GERMINATION. 

GERMINATION  is  a  term  applied  to  that  part  of 
vegetable  physiology,  which  explains  the  process  by 
which  a  seed  becomes  a  plant. 

For  the  terms  applied  to  the  various  parts  of  a  seed,  see  p.  59. 

When  a  seed  is  committed  to  the  earth,  under  the 
proper  conditions  of  air,  heat,  and  moisture,  it  first 
swells  by  the  fluids  absorbed  by  its  vessels.  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Thomson  of  Edinburgh,  a  chemical  action 
next  takes  place ;  oxygen  gas  is  absorbed,  and  carbonic 
acid  evolved;  by  this  process,  the  carbon  in  the  farina 
of  the  lobes  being  diminished,  and  the  oxygen  increased 
in  proportion,  it  is,  in  part,  converted  into  sugar.  The 
cotyledons  thus  prepared, convey  nourishment  through 
vessels,  fitted  for  the  purpose,  immediately  to  the  em- 
bryo or  chick.  Thus  supplied  with  nourishment,  the 
chick  sends  its  radicle  downward,  taking  such  root  as 
finally  to  be  supplied  with  nourishment  from  the  earth, 
and  its  plume  upward,  to  unfold  itself  into  herbage.  In 
this  process,  the  integuments  of  the  seed  are  ruptur- 
ed and  presently  decay.  The  radicle  makes  its  ap- 
pearance rather  before  the  plume. 

Observation.  The  chemical  action,  mentioned  above,  is  attend- 
ed  with  an  evolution  of  heat  which  results  from  the  absorption  of 
oxygen 

The  evolution  of  .sugar  is  precisely  what  takes  place  in  malting-, 
in  which  the  seed  is  exposed  in  a  warm  place  and  moistened  un- 
til germination  commences,  when  the  process  is  stopped  by  drying1 
it.-  It  is  then  found  to  have  become  sweet,  -.-»d  is  used  to  impart 
saccharine  matter  to  beer. 


GERMINATION.  1 01 

When  the  young  root  has  made  some  progress,  the 
cotyledons  are  raised  out  of  the  ground  hy  the  ascend* 
ing  stem,  take  a  green  colour  and  perform  the  function 
of  real  leaves,  submitting  the  juices  to  the  action  of 
air  arid  light ;  in  this  state  they  constitute  what  are 
called  seed-leaves.  Hadish,  Mustard,  and  Bean  are  ex- 
amples. After  the  plume  unfolds  itself  into  the  proper 
leaves,  these  seed-leaves,  being  no  longer  needed,  gen- 
erally wither  and  decay. 

Plants  which  have  only  one  cotyledon,  as  the  grass 
and  corn  tribes,  and  the  Orchidce,  do  not  raise  it  out  of 
the  ground,  and  it  of  course  never  becomes  a  seed-leak 

Observation*  The  substance,  which  makes  up  the  principal  bulk 
of  the  seed  with  one  cotyledon,  has  been  called  Albumen.  There 
is,  in  some  of  those  seeds,  another  part,  which  is  situated  in  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  embryo,  which  has  been  called  Vitelhts  or 
yolk,  very  conspicuous  in  Indian- corn. 

The  presence  of  air  is  indispensable  to  the  germi- 
nation of  seeds.  They  will  not  vegetate  in  an  ex- 
hausted receiver,  nor  when  they  are  buried  too  deep  in 
the  earth,  but  they  often  retain  their  power  to  vegetate 
for  an  unlimited  period.  Earth,  taken  from  a  consid- 
erable depth,  will,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  soon  be  cov- 
ered with  young  plants,  especially  of  the  Thistle  or 
Mustard  kind,  though  no  seeds  have  been  allowed  to 
have  access  to  it. 

The  vital  principle  of  seeds,  on  which  depends  their 
power  to  vegetate,  seems  not  to  be  affected  by  the  com- 
mon vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold.  Some  seeds  lose 
their  vegetative  power  by  being  kept  out  of  the  ground 
ever  so  little  a  while  after  they  are  ripe,  and,  in  order 
to  succeed,  must  sow  themselves  in  their  own  way. 
Others  may  be  kept  a  long  while  without  losing  this 
power.  Some  seeds,  although  they  will  vegetate  after 
being  long  preserved,  jet  they  produce  stinted  and 
sickly  plants. 

If  the  process  of  germination  has  once  commenced., 
its  interruption  is  fatal  to  the  seed. 


102  Aff ATOMY  01?  VEGETABLES. 

The  elongation  of  the  radicles  downward  takes, 
place  by  additions  to  their  extremities.  The  elonga- 
tion of  the  plume  takes  place  by  an  increase  of  parts 
already  formed. 

The  unerring  direction  of  the  radicle  downward, 
and  of  the  plume  upward,  is  found,  by  experiment,  to 
he  under  the  controul  of  gravitation  ;  hence,  we  per- 
ceive, why  plants  do  not  grow  perpendicular  to  the  sur- 
face, which  is  frequently  much  inclined,  but  always 
stand  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 


CHAP.  II. 

ANATOMY. 

In  the  living  vegetable  system  there  are  to  be  con- 
sidered the  exteriour  form  and  the  internal  constitution. 

Having,  in  the  former  part  of  the  work,  explained 
the  external  characters  of  plants,  we  proceed  next  to 
an  examination  of  their  internal  structure. 

Observation,  The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  vegetables,  al- 
though a  pleasing  and  important  branch  of  Botanical  science,  is 
not  absolutely  indispensable  to  the  practical  botanist,  the  discrimi- 
nating characters  being  taken  altogether  from  external  marks. 
Most  of  the  following  observations  will  be  intelligible  to  every 
reader,  but  as  the  subject  is  very  much  connected  with  the  pecu- 
liar laws  which  govern  living  beings,  and  with  the  science  of 
chemistry,  the  young*  reader  is  cautioned  not  to  be  dissatisfied 
with  himself,  if  he  should  be  unable  to  comprehend  them  in  every 
particular. 

This  chapter  will  be  confined  principally  to  a  mere 
description  of  the  several  internal  parts  ;  the  next  will 
be  appropriated  to  the  various  functions  these  perform. 

The  vegetable  body  consists  of  the  BARK,  WOOD, 
and  PITH. 

I.  Of  the  Bark. 

The  Bark  consists  externally  of  the  Epidermis,  Cuti- 
cle, or  outer  bark,  next  of  the  Cellular  integument,  and 
internally  of  the  Cortex  or  inner  bark. 


ANATOMY  Of  VEGETABLES.  10S 

1.  Epidermis.     Every  part  of  a  living  plant  is  cov- 
ered with  a  skin  or  membrane,  called  tiie  epidermis  or 
cuticle. 

The  term  cuticle  has  been  applied  by  anatomists  to 
the  scarf  skin  which  covers  the  animal  body.  There  is 
the  most  striking  analogy  between  the  animal  and  veg- 
etable cuticle. 

The  cuticle  is  sometimes  called  the  outer  bark. 
Upon  the  leaves  and  annual  branches  it  is  membranous 
and  transparent.  Upon  older  branches  it  is  more  or 
less  opaque,  and  on  the  bodies  of  old  trees  it  is  coarse, 
thick,  cleft  and  scaling  off,  being  sometimes  altogether 
removed,  as  in  old  oaks  and  elms,  the  dead  layers  of  the 
inner  bark  performing  its  functions. 

The  Birch  has  its  outer  hark  in  circular  layers  re- 
sembling paper,  for  which  daat  of- the  White  Birch  has 
heen  used  as  a  substitute. 

The  outer  bark  serves  (he  purpose  of  protection  from 
external  injuries,  at  the  same  time  that  it  regulates  the 
proportion  of  absorption  and  perspiration  through  its 
pores.  It  is  destitute  of  vitality  ;  the  only  part  of  a 
living  plant  which  is  dead.  Although  it  does  not  grow, 
yet  it  is  capable  of  very  great  extension. 

The  outer  bark  of  many  of  the  grasses,  and  of  sev- 
eral species  of  Equisdum  or  scouring1  rush,  contains 
silicious  earth  or  flint.  It  is  so  abundant  in  the  Rat- 
tan, that  it  will  give  fire  with  steel. 

2.  The  Cellular  integument.     Immediately  beneath 
the  cuticle  or  outer  bark  we  find  the  cellular  iutegu- 
ment.     This  being  for  the  most  part  green,  is   the 
seat  of  colour,  and  so  far  is  analogous  to  the  cutis  or 
true  skin  of  animals. 

The  leaf  consists  of  an  extension  of  the  cellular  in- 
tegument, covered  on  both  sides  by  a  membranous  ex- 
pansion of  the  cuticle.  It  is  of  a  succulent  vascular  na- 
ture, and  is  important  in  a  physiological  point  of  view, 
being  the  part  in  which  the  fluids  are  changed  by  the 


104  ANATOMY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

action  of  air  and  light,  and  in  which  the  various  secre- 
tions principally  take  place. 

This  part  is  interposed  between  the  cuticle  and  the 
true  bark. 

3.  Cortex.  Immediately  under  the  cellular  integu- 
ment and  next  to  the  wood  we  find  the  inner  or  true 
bark.  Jt  consists  of  but  one  layer  in  plants  or  branch- 
es of  only  one  year  old.  In  older  branches  or  the 
trunks  of  trees,  it  consists  of  as  many  layers  as  they 
are  years  old.  The  innermost  layer  is  called  the  liber. 
It  is  in  this  layer  only  that  the  essential  vital  functions 
are  carried  on  for  the  time  being  ;  after  which,  it  is 
pushed  outwards  with  the  cellular  integument  by  the 
successive  formation  of  new  layers,  and  with  the  cel- 
lular integument  finally  becomes  a  lifeless  crust. 

The  inner  bark  of  some  species  of  trees  separates 
when  macerated  in  water  into  the  several  layers  of 
which  it  is  composed  ;  each  layer,  in  some  cases,  ap- 
pearing perforated  like  lace.  The  Lime-tree  or  Bass- 
wood  is  one  of  the  finest  examples,  in  which  the  fibres 
are  soft  and  tenacious  like  hemp,  and  have  been  manu- 
factured. 

All  these  layers,  in  a  living  state,  are  closely  con- 
nected by  the  cellular  texture  which  pervades  the  vege- 
table body  generally,  as  well  as  by  transverse  vessels 
which  pass  through  them.  The  principal  vessels  of 
the  bark  are  the  longitudinal  ones  5  they  are  called 
cortical  vessels. 

In  the  bark  the  peculiar  virtues  of  particular  plants 
chiefly  reside,  especially  in  several  of  its  internal  lay- 
ers nearest  the  wood. 

II.   Wood. 

When  the  bark  is  removed,  we  come  to  the  wood* 
which  makes  the  principal  bulk  of  a  trunk  of  a  tre^  or 
shrub.  When  cut  across,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  a 
number  of  concentric  layers,  called  grains,  PL  3,  fig* 
17,  c.  very  distinct  in  most  trees  of  our  northern  cli- 


ANATOMY  OF  VEGETABLES.  105 

mate.  Every  year's  growth  constitutes  a  layer,  so 
that  by  counting  the  several  layers  the  age  of  the  tree 
may  be  ascertained. 

In  a  species  of  ash  these  layers  are  very  distinct, 
and  are  so  slightly  connected  by  the  cellular  substance 
between  them,  that  by  continual  beating  and  bending, 
the  basket-maker  is  enabled  to  separate  them  for  his 
use.  These  layers  are  annually  secreted  or  deposited 
from  the  innermost  part  of  the  bark  or  liber.  The  wood 
owes  its  tenacity  and  strength  to  innumerable  woody 
fibres,  and  consists  of  various  vessels  running  for  the 
most  part  longitudinally,  PI.  3,  fig.  17,  b.  Some  of 
these  vessels  have  a  spiral  coat,  others  not.  Some  have 
their  9 ides  perforated,  and  others  nearly  or  quite  en- 
tire— see  pi.  3,  fig.  19  &  20.  The  vessels  anastomose 
or  communicate  laterally  with  each  other.  This  is 
the  case  also  with  the  vessels  of  the  bark,  which  are 
smaller  and  more  complicated  thaw  those  of  the  wood. 

Observation.  In  the  transverse  sections  of  wood,  which  are  a 
common  and  beautiful  object  in  the  microscope,  these  vessels  are 
very  conspicuous.  In  the  roots  of  the  Elm,  the  trunk  of  the  Com- 
mon Creeper,  and  the  wood  of  the  Chesnut,  they  are  so  large  that 
air  and  even  water  can  be  sucked  through  them  in  pieces  of  sever- 
al feet  in  length. 

Of  the  vessels  of  the  wood,  some  in  their  youngest 
state  convey  the  sap  from  the  root  to  the  extremities  of 
the  branches  and  leaves,  and  others  contain  the  vari- 
ous peculiar  or  secreted  juices.  The  whole  are  joined 
together  by  the  cellular  substance,  which  seems  to  be 
designed  to  unite  all  the  parts  of  a  plant. 

In  some  trees,  and  particularly  old  ones,  there  are  a 
number  of  external  layers  or  grains  of  wood  which 
differ  greatly  in  colour  from  the  central  ones,  being 
much  whiter ;  these  are  called  by  the  workmen  the  sap, 
while  the  central  or  darker  part  is  called  the  heart. 
The  sapwood  is  called  technically  alburnum. 
-  The  sapwood  is  the  living,  vascular,  and  active  part, 
while  the  heart  is  dead  or  possesses  a  very  low  degree 


106  ANATOMY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

of  vitality.  The  heartwood  is  usually  much  more  du- 
rable timber  than  the  sapwood.  In  the  arrangement 
of  the  fibres  of  the  wood  there  are  two  distinct  ap- 
pearances. Besides  the  layers  just  described,  there 
are  a  series  of  white  and  shining  lamellae,  which  shoot 
from  the  centre  towards  the  circumference,  and  these 
constitute  what  is  called  the  Silver  grain — PL  3,  fig. 
17,  d. 

The  appearance  of  the  silver  grain  is  generally  ob- 
vious in  trees  and  shrubs,  and  particularly  so  in  the 
Oak.  Something  analogous  to  it  is  discoverable  in  an- 
nual herbs. 

The  silver  grain  is  elastic  and  susceptible  of  change 
of  volume  by  various  temperatures. 

III.  Medulla  or  Pith. 

This  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  trunk  and 
branches  of  plants*  JLn  plants  of  one  year's  growth  it 
is  often  very  large  and  full  of  the  juices  of  the  plant ; 
in  older  ones,  it  becomes  dry,  soft,  light,  and  very  com- 
pressible. In  most  old  trees  it  is  altogether  obliterat- 
ed. It  has  been  thought  to  be  a  reservoir  of  the  juices 
in  young  plants.  The  pith  is  very  conspicuous  in  the 
Elder,  Ash,  and  Sumach. 

General  texture  of  Plants. 

Mirbel  finds,  by  the  help  of  the  highest  magnifying 
powers,  that  the  vegetable  body  is  a  continued  mass  of 
tubes  and  cells  ;  the  former  extended  indefinitely,  the 
latter  frequently  and  regularly  interrupted  by  trans- 
verse partitions.  These  partitions  being  ranged  al- 
ternately in  the  corresponding  cells,  and  each  cell  in- 
creasing somewhat  in  diameter  after  its  first  forma- 
tion, except  where  restrained  by  the  transverse  parti- 
tions, seems  to  account  for  their  hexagonal  figure.* 
See  PI.  16,  fig,  1 1.  a.  The  membranous  sides  of  all  these 
cells  and  tubes  are  very  thin,  more  or  less  transparent. 

*  Jn  microscopic  figures  they  are  generally  drawn  like  circles  intersecting  each 
other, 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES*  107 

often  porous,  variously  perforated  or  torn.  Of  the 
tubes,  some  are  without  any  lateral  perforations,  b. 
at  least  for  a  considerable  extent ;  others  pierced  with 
holes  ranged  in  a  close  spiral  line,  c. ;  in  others,  sev- 
eral of  th^se  holes  run  together,  as  it  were,  into  inter- 
rupted spiral  clefts,  d.  ;  and  in  some,  those  clefts 
are  continued,  so  that  the  whole  tube,  more  or  less,  is 
cut  into  a  spiral  line,  e.  ;  which,  in  some  young 
branches  and  tender  leaves,  will  unrol  to  a  great  ex- 
tent,  when  they  are  gently  torn  asunder.  The  cellular 
texture,  especially,  is  extended  to  every  part  of  the  veg- 
etable body,  even  into  the  thin  skin,  called  the  cuticle, 
which  covers  every  external  part,  and  into  the  fine 
hairs  or  down,  which,  in  some  instances,  clothe  the 
cuticle  itself. 


CHAP.  III. 
PHYSIOLOGY. 

Having,  in  the  former  chapter,  given  a  brief  outline 
of  the  structure  of  the  internal  organs  of  plants,  we  pro- 
ceed to  give  some  account  of  the  supposed  functions 
these  perform. 

I.  Division  of  a  Plant  into  parts  according  to  the  func- 
tions they  perform. 

Every  plant  examined  as  to  external  structure  dis- 
plays at  least  four  systems  of  organs.  1.  The  Root  ; 
2.  the  Trunk  and  Branches  ;  3.  the  Leaves  ;  and  4.  the 
Fructification. — Davy. 

1.  The  Root  fixes  the  plant  in  the  earth  and  imbibes 
the  nourishment  from  the  soil.     The  root  is  a  continu- 
ation of  the  trunk,  and  is  similar  to  it  in  its  anatomi- 
cal structure.     While  the  trunk  terminates  in  leaves, 
the  root  terminates  in  fibres  or  radicles,  in  which  its 
peculiar  functions  are  performed. 

2.  The  Trunk  elevates  the  leaves,  flowrer  and  fruit  to 
a  convenient  and  proper  situation,  and  serves  as  a  me- 


lf)3  PHYSIOLOGY  0]F  VEGETABLES. 

dium  of  vascular  communication  between  the  root  and 
these  parts. 

3.  The  Leaves  serve  to  effect  important  changes  in 
the  juices  of  the  plant,  as  is  presently  to  he  explained. 

4.  The  Fructification  forms  a  distinct  set  of  organs 
for  the  continuation  of  plants  in  succession,  one  genera- 
tion after  another.     For  the  particular  physiology   of 
this  part,  ^^fructification,  p.  45. 

II.  Thz  Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  Jlnimals. 

Physiologists  observe  an  analogy  between  animals 
and  vegetables,  both  in  anatomical  structure  and  physi- 
ological functions,  which  r;)akes  it  necessary  to  explain, 
especially,  the  circulation  in  animals,  which  is  very 
analogous  to  what  we  are  about  to  explain  in  vegeta- 
bles. 

The  blood  passes  out  of  the  left  cavity  of  the  heart* 
in  the  main  trunk  of  the  arteries,  vUiich,  dividing  and 
branching  like  a  tree,  takes  a  pretty  direct  course  to 
all  the  various  p?rts  of  the  body,  where  its  branches 
finally  become  innumerable,  pervading  every  particle 
of  the  body,  and  so  small  as  to  elude  observation.  These 
are  called  the  extreme  vessels  of  the  body.  They  grad- 
ually collect  themselves  again  into  another  set  of 
vessels,  called  the  veins,  which  finally  unite  into  two 
principal  trunks  that  enter  the  cavity  of  the  right  side 
of  the  heart  together,  and  convey  the  blood  thither. 

By  ite  contractions  the  heart  sends  it  from  the  right 
cavity  to  the  lungs,  through  a  vessel  which  passes  up 
to  them,  ramifying,  like  the  artery  which  has  been  de- 
scribed, until  it  pervades  every  particle  of  the  lungs 
with  its  minute  vessels,  which  are  called  the  extreme 
bloodvessels  of  the  lungs.  These  finally  collect  them- 
selves into  another  set  of  vessels,  which  enter  the  left 
cavity  of  the  heart  in  four  trunks,  and  return  the  blood 
to  be  recirculated.  The  extreme  blood  vessels,  in  the 
lungs  meet  with  the  extreme  branches  of  the  trachea  or 

f  The  heart  has  two  cavities,  a  right  and  left, 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES  109 

Windpipe,  which  every  where  accompany  them,  being 
separated  from  them  only  by  very  fine  membranes. 

In  these  extreme  vessels  of  the  lungs  the  blood  under- 
goes an  important  change*  It  gives  off  a  portion  of 
its  carbon  which  combines  with  a  portion  of  the  oxy- 
gen or  vital  air  inspired  ;  at  the  same  time  its  capaci- 
ty for  caloric  or  heat  is  increased,  and  it  drinks  up,  as 
it  were,  the  heat  of  the  oxygen,  which  otherwise  would 
have  been  developed.  By  these  changes,  the  blood 
from  a  purple,  acquires  a  bright  verm  ill  ion  colour. 
The  blood  then  passes  into  the  left  cavity  of  the  head, 
which  contracts  and  throws  it  through  the  arteries  in- 
to the  extreme  vessels  of  the  body,  still  retaining  its 
vermillion  colour. 

In  the  extreme  vessels  of  the  body9  the  blood  performs 
the  important  offices  for  which  it  was  designed  in  the 
animal  economy.  In  these,  in  some  unknown  manner, 
its  capacity  for  the  matter  of  heat,  is  diminished,  and 
the  heat  which  was  taken  up  in  the  lungs  is  thus  devel- 
oped, where  it  is  required,  in  every  part  of  the  body. 
In  these  vessels  also,  the  body  is  nourished  and  its  de- 
cays built  up. 

After  the  blood  has  passed  the  extreme  vessels,  it  is 
found  to  have  lost  its  fine  vermillion,  and  acquired  a 
dark  purple,  which  it  retains  as  it  passes  through  the 
veins  to  the  heart,  and  thence  to  the  lungs,  to  be  re- 
newed arid  recirculated. 

Another  system  of  vessels  called  t\\eLacteals9  take  up 
from  the  viscera  the  essential  nourishment  of  our  food, 
and  convey  it  by  their  common  trunk,  to  the  circulation 
emptying  it,  in  form  of  milk  into  one  of  the  veins. 
Thus  the  great  business  of  the  circulation  is  done  in 
in  the  extreme  vessels  of  the  lungs  and  in  those  of  the 
body  ;  the  larger  trunks  serve  as  mere  channels  of  con- 
veyance, while  the  heart  acts  as  an  engine  to  give  mo- 
tion. In  the  extreme  vessel:-;  of  the  lungs  the  blood  is 
prepared  to  nourish  and  support  the  body,  and  in  th  we 
of  the  body  it  performs  this  office. 
10 


110  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETALES. 

The  arteries  in  the  limbs  are  deep-seated  near  the 
bones,  while  the  veins  are  much  more  superficial. 

III.  Of  the  Sap-vessels,  course  of  the  Sap,  functions  of 
the  Leaves,  and  theory  of  Vegetation. 

The  whole  vegetable  body  is  an  assemblage  of  tubes 
and  vessels,  as  has  been  previously  observed. 

Observation.  In  the  arrangement  of  these  there  is  a  degree  of 
similarity  in  all  plants,  but  each  species  has  its  peculiarities  just 
as  it  has  in  external  characters. 

The  fluid  which  is  most  abundant  in  these  vessels  is 
the  sap  or  blood  of  the  plant,  from  which  are  secreted  by 
appropriate  organs,  all  the  various  vegetable  products 
to  which  the  various  flavours  and  qualities  of  each  plant 
are  owing,  as  gums,  resins,  honey,  acids,  essential  oils, 
&c.  These  substances  must  each  be  lodged  improper 
cells  and  vessels  to  be  kept  distinct  from  each  other.  Air 
is  found  to  exist  in  the  vegetable  body,  and  must  like- 
wise be  contained  in  appropriate  vessels. 

1.  Of  me,  Sap-vessels  and  Cortical-vessels,  and  their 
communication  with  each  other  in  the  leaf. 

The  external  surface  of  the  radicles  or  fibres  of  the 
roots,  are  presumed  to  be  perforated  by  the  mouths  of 
innumerable  vessels  which  absorb  nourishment. 

These  absorbents  are  presently  collected  into  the 
large  simple  vessels  of  the  sap-wood,  which  are  com- 
pared to  the  veins  of  an  animal.  The  sap-vessels, 
called  by  Mr.  Knight  central  vessels,  from  their  situa- 
tion near  the  pith  in  young  plants,  pass  up  and  branch 
off  to  the  leaves  and  fructification,  as  they  approach 
them. 

Passing  through  the  woody  part  of  the  foot-stalks 
of  the  leavef,  and  through  the  ribs  and  veins  of  the 
leaf,  which  are  its  ramifications,  they  are  presumed 
to  terminate  in  the  -parenchyma  or  pulp  of  the  leaf,  and 
communicate  with  the  vessels  and  cells  which  compose 
it.  Thus  they  extend  from  the  fibres  of  the  root  to  the 


IPAYSIOJLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES.  Ill 

extremity  of  each  annual  shoot  of  the  plant.  They 
have  throughout,  spiral  coats — see  plate  3,  fig.  18  &19. 
The  cortical  vessels  or  vessels  of  the  inner  bark  are 
very  distinct,  botli  in  structure  and  function,  from  the 
sap+vessels  ;  they  are  much  smaller,  and  the  spiral 
coats  which  are  conspicuous  in  the  sap-vessels  have 
never  been  found  in  them.  Through  the  medium  uf  the 
bark  of  the  leaf-stalk  these  vessels  of  the  inner  bark 
communicate  with  the  cells  of  the  leaf,  the  same  with 
which  the  sap-vessels  communicate.  This  is  probably 
the  only  communication  which  the  two  sets  of  vessels 
have  with  each  other.  « 

2.  Ascent  of  the  Sap. 

In  the  following  account  of  the  course  of  the  sap,  &c. 
the  theory  of  Mr.  Knight  is  adopted. 

In  the  extreme  vessels  of  the  root  which  immediate- 
ly absorb  the  nourishment,  an  important  function  is  per- 
formed. The  matter  presented  to  the  root  is  water 
holding  various  materials  in  solution  :  by  an  unknown 
process  the  extreme  vessels  of  the  root,  as  they  absorb 
this  fluid  matter  of  the  soil,  convert  it  into  sap  of  the 
peculiar  quality  necessary  to  nourish  the  plant  which 
absorbs  it. 

The  sap  thus  formed  differs  widely  in  its  properties  in 
different  species.  Sugar,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
usually  abounds  in  it  ;  various  salts,  acids,  gums,  oils, 
and  resins,  are  occasionally  found  in  it. 

The  sap  is  compared  to  the  blood  of  animals. 

Thus  prepared  by  the  root,  it  undergoes  no  change 
of  consequence,  nor  performs  any  important  func- 
tion until  it  enters  the  leaves  and  fructification.  The 
vesse^  of  the  sap-wood,  in  which  it  passes,  seem 
destined  merely  to  convey  it  to  the  leaves  and  flowers, 
elevated  in  their  several  convenient  situations. 

Part  of  the  sap  is  conveyed  into  the  flowers  and 
fruit,  where  various  fine  secretions,  such  as  the  volatile 


112  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

oil,  on  which  depends  the  aroma  or  peculiar  perfume  of 
flowers,  are  made  from  it.  By  far  the  greater  portion 
of  sap  is  carried  into  the  leaves,  where  it  is  subjected 
to  important  changes.  In  these  organs  the  sap  is  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  light  and  air,  two  powerful 
agents  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  form  various  secre- 
tions, which  give  peculiar  flavours  and  qualities  to  the 
leaves  themselves,  at  the  same  time  that  much  super- 
fluous matter  passes  off  by  perspiration. 

The  sap,  thus  modified  in  the  leaves,  is  returned  by 
another  set  of  vessels  into  the  new  layer  of  bark. 
A  More   will   be  said   of  the?  descent  of  the  sap  and 
growth  of  the  plant  after  we  have  given  an  account  of 

S.  The  Structure  and  Functions  of  the  Leaves. 

The  Leaves  are  very  aptly  compared  to  the  lungs  of 
animals.  They  are  the  organs  of  respiration,  perspi- 
ration, and  absorption. 

The  alburnum  or  sap-wood  is  continued  into  the 
leaf-stalk,  which  branches  out  into  the  leaf,  form- 
ing what  is  called  the  skeleton  of  the  leaf,  which  is 
frequently  seen  after  the  worms  have  devoured  the 
other  parts.  The  spiral  tubes  attend  the  alburnum 
throughout  this  skeleton  ;  they  are  conspicuous  in  the 
leaf  of  the  Rose,  Lilac,  Lilies,  and  particularly  so  in 
the  Common  Eel-grass  ;  when  these  are  torn  and  gent- 
ly separated,  they  are  seen  unrolling  themselves  from 
the  broken  ends  of  the  nerves  and  veins. 

This  skeleton  is  clothed  on  both  sides  by  a  membra- 
nous extension  of  the  cuticle  ;  between  these  two 
membanes  is  the  fleshy  substance  of  the  leaf  called 
parenchyma,  which  consists  of  vessels  and  cells  filled 
with  the  juices  of  the  plant. 

The  upper  surface,  which  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  is 
darker  than  the  under,  its  epidermis  is  thicker  but 
transparent,  allowing  a  free  passage  of  light. 

On  the  under  surface,  the  epidermis  is  thin  and  full 
of  cavities,  and,  it  is  probable,  altogether  by  this  sur- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES.  US 

lace  that  leaves  perspire,  and  absorb  the  principles  of 
the  atmosphere  necessary  for  vegetation.  The  under 
surface  is  so  constructed  that  water  will  not  wet  it,  but 
collects  in  large  drops  and  rolls  off,  otherwise  its  func- 
tions might  be  obstructed. 

There  are  in  the  leaves  of  some  plants,  either  on  one 
or  both  surfaces,  a  large  number  of  small  whitish 
points,  scarcely  apparent  to  the  naked  eye  but  easily 
distinguished  with  a  glass.  They  are  found  to  consist 
of  small  fissures  surrounded  by  areas.  These  pores, 
which  contain  air  only,  are  surrounded  by  a  pair  of 
cells,  which  contain  a  greenish  fluid  in  common  with 
the  other  cells  of  the  leaf.  Through  these  pores  and 
cells  the  communication  appears  to  be  kept  up  between 
the  external  air  and  the  juices  of  the  leaf. — See  Smith's 
Bot.  Note  84,  by  Prof.  Bigelow. 

The  upper  side  of  leaves  is  uniformly  turned  to 
the  light.  If  a  branch  be  overturned,  the  foot-stalk 
will  twist  until  the  leaf  regains  its  former  position. 

Light  is  so  essential  to  vegetation  that  few  plants  can 
be  perfect  without  it.  Plants  growing  in  the  shade, 
besides  other  imperfections,  are  without  colour.  When 
they  are  placed  in  a  room  where  the  light  comes  only 
laterally  from  a  single  window,  they  incline  not  only 
the  leaves,  but  the  whole  plant  takes  a  course  to- 
wards  it. 

Three  kinds  of  vessels  centre  in  the  lungs  of  animals, 
the  Arteries,  the  Veins,  and  the  dir-vessels of  the  Wind- 
pipe. In  tbe  leaves,  the  Sap-vessels,  the  CorticM-ves- 
sels,  and  Pores,  which  convey  air,  communicate  with 
each  other. 

In  the  lungs  of  animals  the  purple  blood  from  the, 
veins  absorbs  oxygen  gas  from  the  air  inhaled  through 
the  air-vessete  of  the  Wind-pipe,  which  combines  with 
a  portion  of  the  carbon  of  the  blood,  and  is  thrown  off 
at  the  next  breath  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
while  the  caloric  of  the  oxygen  is  absorbed,  to  be  car- 
ried on  in  the  arteries  and  disengaged  in  the  extreme 
vessels.  Watery  vapour  is  also  given  off  by  the  Junes. 
10* 


114  PHYSIOLOGY  OF 

The  leaves,  in  the  sunshine,  uniformly  absorb  car- 
bonic acid  gas  from  the  atmosphere,  by  their  under  sur- 
faces, and  decomposing  it,  retain  the  carbon  and  give 
out  its  oxygen.  The  carbon  retained,  no  doubt  goes 
into  the  juices  in  the  leaves.  This,  it  will  be  perceiv- 
ed, is  the  converse  of  what  is  effected  on  the  atmos- 
phere by  the  lungs  of  animals.  Animals  absorb  oxy- 
gen and  produce  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  vegetables  ab- 
sorb carbonic  acid,  and  give  out  oxygen  gas  ;  thus  ani- 
mals and  vegetables  serve,  very  happily,  to  counteract 
each  other's  effects  on  the  atmosphere. 

In  animals,  the  blood  in  the  lungs,  by  parting  with 
some  of  its  carbon,  changes  from  a  purple  to  a  vermil- 
lion  colour.  In  the  leaves,  the  juices  from  being  col- 
ourless, become  green,  not  by  losing  carbon,  for  that 
principle  is  increased  in  them. 

So  great  is  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  pro- 
duced by  the  breathing  of  animals,  and  various  chemic- 
al operations  in  nature,  that  we  should  probably  be 
suffocated  by  it  were  it  not  continually  decomposed  by 
the  whole  world  of  vegetables,  and  the  pure  vital  air 
restored  for  our  respiration. 

Leaves  in  the  night  give  out  carbonic  acid,  but  in  a 
less  quantity  than  that  which  they  absorb  during  the 
day.  Flowers  are  found  to  give  out  carbonic  acid 
both  in  the  sunshine  and  shade,  of  course  their  effect 
is  uniformly  to  vitiate  the  air. 

Observation.  1.  It  will  be  perceived,  from  what  takes  place  in 
leaves,  that  plants  derive  a  part  of  their  solid  nourishment  from  the 
air,  that  is,  the  carbon  or  charcoal  matter  from  the  decomposed 
fixed  air  or  carbonic  acid  gas. 

2.  Some  inquiries  of  Mr.  Ellis  of  Edinburgh  go  to  prove,  that 
vegetating  plants,  at  all  times,  absorb  oxygen  and  produce  carbo- 
nic acid  in  its  stead — Smith**  Bat,  p.  175.  Note. 

The  leaves  are  also  organs  of  perspiration.  The 
blood  or  juices  of  plants  give  off  a  portion  of  their  water 
in  the  form  of  perspiration,  through  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaves.  Dr.  Hales  proved  that  an  annual  Sunflower 
perspired  in  dry  weather,  more  than  a  man.  The  Cor- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES.  115 

nelian  Cherry  perspires,  in  the  course  of  24  hours,  sev- 
eral times  its  own  weight.  In  moist  weather,  however, 
plants  sometimes  absorb  moisture  by  their  leaves. 

The  rapid  waste  of  moisture,  by  the  perspiration  of 
the  leaves,  and  its  supply  by  the  absorption  of  the  roots, 
are  both  indicated  by  the  rapidity  with  which  a  plant 
wilts  when  plucked  from  its  root,  and  its  immediate 
revival  when  the  stem  is  pl&ed  in  water.  It  is  indi- 
cated also  by  the  very  great  quantity  of  water  ne- 
cessary to  supply  some  plants  when  placed  in  the  house 
in  an  espalier  or  flower-pot. 

4.  Descent  of  the  Sap  and  Growth  of  the  Plant. 

It  is  very  contradictory  to  the  common  notions  of 
vegetation,  that  plants  should  grow  by  a  flow  of  sap 
from  the  leaves  downward  ;  yet  this  point  seems  to  be 
well  established  by  Mi\  Knight's  experiments. 

The  sap,  haying  ascended  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves,  and  being  there  modified  and  prepared,  as  has 
just  been  described,  descends  through  the  vessels  of 
the  bark,  for  the  double  purpose  of  nourishing  and 
increasing  the  plant,  and  of  producing  the  various 
secretions,  such  as  gums,  resins,  turpentines,  oils,  &c. 
which  are  usually  found  in  the  bark.  "  In  the  bark, 
principally,  if  I  mistake  not,  these  peculiar  secretions 
of  a  plant  are  perfected,  each,  undoubtedly,  in  an  ap- 
propriate set  of  vessels." — Smith. 

The  new  layers  of  bark  and  wood  appear  to  be  add- 
ed in  trees  in  the  following  manner. 

The  descending  cortical  vessels  of  the  liber,  in  the 
growing  season,  throw  out  between  the  bark  and  the 
wood,  a  pulpy  or  gelatinous  matter,  which  has  been 
called  cambium.  The  cambium,  as  it  gradually  becomes 
fibrous  and  of  a  firmer  consistence,  separates  into  a 
new  layer  of  bark,  which  attaches  itself  to  the  other 
layers,  and,  in  its  turn,  secretes  another  cambium;  and 
a  new  layer  of  wood,  which  is  deposited  upon  the  outside 
of  the  former  layers. 


116  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

Observation.  1.  When  the  cambium  first  begins  to  be  fibrous, 
although  produced  by  the  bark,  yet  it  adheres  so  much  more 
firmly  to  the  wood,  that  it  remains*  quite  entire  upon  it  when  the 
bark  is  removed.  It  contains  much  saccharine  matter,  and  in 
those  trees,  in  which  it  is  not  tinctured  with  any  disagreeable 
property  of  the  plant,  as  bitterness,  it  is  palatable. 

It  is  particularly  so  in  the  Birch.  Children,  in  the  country, 
sometimes  seek  for  it,  and  appear  to  be  as  fond  of  it  as  they  are 
of  fruit. 

2.  At  the  season  when  the  cSnbium  is  perfectly  formed,  trees 
maybe  stripped  of  their  bark  entirely  without  injury,  a  new  bark 
being  speedily  formed  upon  them.  This  has  been  thought  to 
prove,  that  the  wood  had  power  to  produce  anew  bark  I  have  sev- 
eral times  made  the  experiment  on  forest  trees  with  perfect  suc- 
cess, and  from  some  circumstances  attending  it,  am  inclined  to 
the  following  opinion.  That  the  cambium,  containing  the  rudi- 
ment of  a  new  layer  of  bark,  as  well  as  of  a  new  layer  of 
wood,  is  not  removed  with  the  bark,  but  remains  undisturbed  on 
the  trunk,  and  thus  the  new  bark,  which  forms  in  this  case,  is  not 
formed  by  the  wood,  but  had  its  rudiment  previously  formed  by 
the  bark.  This  method  of  removing  the  old  bark  has  been  turned 
to  advantage  in  fruit  trees,  whose  bark  had  become  bound.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  pulp  of  the  cambium.  It  should 
be  protected  from  the  weather  a  while  b}  some  soft  covering. 

In  animals,  the  trunks  of  the  arteries  serve  as  mere 
channels  to  convey  the  blood  into  the  extreme  vessels, 
which  are  distributed  throughout  e/ery  fibre  of  the 
body.  It  is  in  these  extreme  vessels,  that  the  great 
vital  functions  go  on  ;  in  these  it  is,  that  parts  are  in- 
creased or  renewed,  and  in  these  animal  heat  is  pro- 
duced. The  veins  collect  the  blood,  after  it  has^erform- 
ed  these  function.^  and  return  it  through  the  medium  of 
the  heart,  to  the  lungs,  to  be  renewed  by  the  air,  and 
sent  round  again  by  the  arteries. 

In  the  vegetable,  the  sap-vessels  are  analogous  to 
the  veins,  and  .the  vessels  of  the  leaf  to  the  extreme 
vessels  of  the  lungs.  The  vessels  of  the  bark,  are  com- 
pared to  the  arteries.  There  are  not  any  vessels  in 
vegetables,  which  carry  the  descending  sap  back 
again  from  the  bark  to  the  vessels  of  the  sap-wood 
to  be  recirculated.  The  sap  is  supposed  to  be  exhaust- 
ed altogether,  by  nourishing  the  plant  in  its  descent. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGTABLES.  llf 

In  this  respect  the  course  of  the  sap  in  vegetables  dif- 
fers essentially  from  the  circulation  in  animals. 

5.  Growth  in  genera!. 

The  growth  of  the  trunks  and  branches,  as  it  re- 
pects  thickness,  takes  place  by  means  of  successive 
layers,  which  are  annually  added,  one  to  the  bark,  and 
another  to  the  wood,  in  a  manner  already  described. 

The  elongation  of  trunks  and  branches  of  trees  and 
shrubs  takes  place  by  annual  shoots,  which  are  made  at 
their  extremities,  No  part  already  formed  is  carried 
upward  or  enlarged  in  proportion  in  all  its  parts,  as  is 
the  case  with  animals. 

The  Sword-leaved  plants,  such  as  Iris  and  some 
species  of  Lily,  elongate  by  additions  to  their  base, 
while  the  parts  perfectly  formed  are  carried  upward  ; 
hence  they  appear  of  a  darker  green  at  their  extremi- 
ties than  near  the  ground.  Most  of  the  grasses  elon- 
gate by  additions  to  the  bases  of  their  several  joints. 

Observation.  I  have  determined  these  points  by  placing"  stakes 
beside  the  growing-  plants  and  marking-  them. 

That  part  of  a  plant  which  is  the  shooting  part, 
whether  it  be  the  base  or  extremity,  is  usually  whitish 
anil  tender. 

6.  Duration  of  the  Vascular  Systems. 

All  perennial  plants  have  annually  a  new  set  of  radi- 
cles to  their  roots,  a  new  growth  of  leaves  to  their 
branches,  whether  the  former  fines  have  fallen  or  not, 
a  new  layer  of  bark,  and  a  new  one  of  wood  added  to 
their  bodies.  Dr.  Smith  says,  <*  the  vascular  system 
of  all  plants  is  strictly  annual.  This  of  course  is  ad- 
mitted in  annual  plants,  the  existence  of  whose  stems, 
and  often  of  the  whole  individual,  is  limited  to  one 
season  ;  but  it  is  no  less  true  with  regard  to  trees. 
The  layer  of  alburnum,  on  the  one  hand,  is  added  to 


118  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

the  wood,  and  the  liber,  or  inner  layer  of  bark,  is  on 
the  other,  annexed  to  the  layers  formed  in  the  preced- 
ing seasons  ;  and  neither  have  any  share  in  the  pro- 
cess of  vegetation  for  the  year  ensuing.  Still,  as  they 
continue  for  a  long  time  to  be  living  bodies,  and  help 
to  perfect,  if  not  to  form,  secretions,  they  must  receive 
some  portion  of  nourishment  from  those  more  active 
parts,  which  have  taken  up  their  late  functions." 

The  vital  functions  of  these  systems  diminish  with 
their  age.  Thus,  on  one  hand,  the  layers  of  bark, 
with  their  systems  of  vessels,  are  pushed  outward  by 
the  new  layers  within,  gradually  diminishing  in  vitali- 
ty, until  they  finally  become  quite  dead,  split  and  scale 
off,  as  we  see  them  in  old  trees.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
layers  of  wood  are  successively  covered  by  the  new 
layers  of  alburnum,  gradually  losing  their  vital  powers, 
until  at  last  they  become  quite  destitute  of  vitality,  and 
then  constitute  the  heart-wood.  The  heart-wood  some- 
times goes  a  step  farther,  decomposes  and  leaves  the 
tree  hollow. 

7.  Facts  which  tend  to  prove  the  preceding  theory  of 
vegetation. 

1.  The  old  physiologists  had  an  idea,  that  the  ves- 
sels of  the  alburnum  contained  nothing  but  air.      Dr. 
Darwin  and  Mr.  Knight,  by  placing  the  cut  ends  of  the 
twigs  of  various  plants  in  coloured  fluids,  succeeded  in 
making  these  vessels  absorb  them  in  such  a   degree, 
that  they  were  enabled  to  trace  them  in  the  vessels 
quite  into  the  leaves  3  thus  proving  that  they  carried 
fluids. 

2.  When  a  tree  is  wounded,  it  heals  from  the  upper 
edge  of  the  wound  downward,  while  below  the  wound, 
the  tree  dies  in  a  sort  of  triangular  space,  until  by  the 
anastomosis  or  lateral  communication  of  the  vessels  of 
the  bark  with  each  other,  the  parts  are  supplied  with 
what  is  necessary  to  their  vitality. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES.  119 

3.  It  lias  been  stated  that  grapes  came  to  maturity 
much  earlier,  were  larger,  asiu   setter  flavoured  when 
a  small  circle  of  bark,  one  or  two  eighths  of  an  inch 
wide,  was  removed  from  around  the  alburnum  of  the 
fruitful  branches,  while  the  fruit  was  in  its  young  state. 
Dr.  Bigelow  mentions  that   this  method    is   annually 
practised  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,   by  different  indi- 
viduals, with  the  best  success. — See  Smith's  Botany, 
page  59.      According  to  Mr.  Knight's  theory,  the  ex- 
planation is   obvious,      The  sap  continues  to  ascend 
with  freedom,  but  being  interrupted  in  its  descent,  and 
confined  to  the  branches  above  the  incision,  a  geater 
quantity  of  it  goes  to  nourish  the  fruit. 

4.  Du  Hamel,  by  many  experiments,   proved  the 
wood  to  be  deposited  from  the  innermost  part  of  the 
bark  or  Liber.     He  introduced  plates  of  tinfoil  under  the 
bark  of  growing  trees,  arid   after  some  years,  on  cut- 
ting them   across,  he  found  the  layers   of  new  wood, 
equal  to  the  number  of  years,  on  the  outside  of  the  tin. 

Observation.  Linnaeus  had  a  peculiar  notion  that  the  new  layers 
were  secreted  annually  from  the  pith,  and  added  internally  to  the 
former  ones. 

5.  It  has  been  mentioned,  that  at  a  particular  sea- 
son, trees  may  be  stripped  of  their  bark  without  inju- 
ry, a  new   bark  being  speedily  formed.      This  was 
thought  to  go   against  the   theory,   but   if  it  be  true, 
as   I    have   suggested,   page  116,  that  the   rudiment 
of  the  new   bark  is  formed  before  the  old  bark  is  re- 
moved, and  is  not  removed  with  it,  but  remains  on  the 
wood,  it  accords  perfectly  with  it. 

8.  Of  the  power  which  elevates  the  Sap. 

The  manner  in  which  the  sap  is  propelled  through 
the  several  tubes,  and  elevated  to  the  top  of  the  tallest 
tree,  seems  not  to  be  well  understood. 

Whatever  may  be  the  action  which  propels  the  fluids, 
it  must  possess  great  power,  for  the  mass  of  fluid  in  a 
large  tree,  which  is  not  only  supported  by  it,  but  mov- 


120  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

ed  upward  with  considerable  force,  amounts  to  several 
tons.  ; 

In  animals,  the  hlood  is  propelled  around  its  curcuit 
by  the  powerful  muscular  contractions  of  the  heart  and 
arteries.  It  is  also  solicited  by  the  action  of  the  ex- 
treme vessels.  Mr.  Knight  supposes  that  the  silver 
grain,  being  susceptible  of  quick  contraction  and  ex- 
pansion by  heat  and  cold,  has  an  agency  in  propelling 
the  sap  by  pressing  upon  the  vessels. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  propulsion  of  the  fluids 
in  vegetables  takes  place  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
of  animals,  i.  e  that  they  are  in  some  way  acted  on  by 
the  coats  of  the  large  vessels,  and  that  they  are  like- 
wise drawn  up  by  the  action  of  the  extreme  vessels  of 
the  leaf.  The  spiral  coats  of  the  vessels  have  been 
suspected  of  having  an  agency  in  this  business.  "  In 
some  of  these,  when  separated  from  the  plant,  Mal- 
pighi  tells  us,  he  once  saw  a  very  beautiful  undulating 
motion  that  appeared  spontaneous.  This  indeed  has 
not  been  seen  by  any  other  person,  nor  can  it  be  sup- 
posed, that  parts  so  delicate  can,  in  general,  be  remov- 
ed from  their  natural  situation,  without  the  destruction 
of  that  fine  irratibility,  on  which  such  a  motion  must- 
depend." — Smith. 

Observation.  I  was  once  examining  some  Eel-grass,  in  which 
these  spirals  are  numerous  and  may  be  dra*vn  out  to  a  great 
length  ;  but  my  object  at  this  time  was  not  to  observe  them.  The 
grass  was  moist  ft?om  the  salt  water  and  laid  in  a  heap,  various- 
ly broken  and  torn  asunder,  on  a  table  in  a  dry,  warm  room. 
I\vas  presently  surprised  by  the  appearance  of  numbers  of  white 
filaments  in  a  very  brisk  vermicular  motion,  and  which  I  actually 
took  for  little  worms.  They  seemed  to  raise  themselves  frequent- 
ly in  end,  and  being  bent  at  various  angles,  turned  rapidly  round 
in  one  direction  a  while,  then  changed  and  turned  in  the  opposte, 
making  at  the  same  time  various  other  animated  movements.  Put- 
ting them  in  the  microscope,  I  found  they  consisted  of  the  spiral 
coats,  which,  from  the  manner  in  which  they  had  been  drawn  out, 
were  twisted,  and  when  drawn  quite  asunder  had,  consequently, 
twisted  together  into  an  elegant  little  cord,  which  being  very  sus- 
ceptible of  changes  of  volume  by  alternate  dryness  and  moisture, 
had  been  put  in  motion  by  the  fluctuating  vapour  arising  from 
the  moist  grass. 


SLEEP  OF  PLANTS. 


I  made  some  experiments  to  see  how  they  would  be  affected  by 
changes  of  temperature,  but  determined  nothing  further  than 
their  mechanical  sensibility  to  water,  being  a  most  extraordinarily 
delicate  Hygrometer,  actively  affected  even  by  the  vapour  of  the 
hand  at  a  considerable  distance. 

It  might  have  been  something  like  this  which  Malpighi  ob* 
served. 

Although  this  may  not  throw  any  immediate  light  on  the  inter- 
esting  subject  of  the  propulsion  of  the  sap,  yet  the  fact  will 
doubtless  be  thought  worth  noticing. 

It  is  most  probable  that  the  propulsion  of  the  sap  is 
not  .to  be  explained  on  any  mechanical  principles,  but  is 
in  some  way  the  effect  of  vitality. 

IV.  Sleep  of  Plants. 

Many  leaves,  especially  the  pinnate  ones,  of  legumin- 
ous plants,  fold  themselves  together  at  night  or  droop 
as  if  dying.  It  is  a  fact,  very  commonly  observed,  that 
many  flowers  close  at  night  without  opening  again  un- 
til the  next  day.  Some  flowers  are  open  only  in  the 
morning,  closing  before  noon.  Common  names  are 
sometimes  applied  from  the  hour  of  their  closing  or 
expanding  ;  as  Four  o'clock.  The  compound  flowers 
are  very  much  disposed  to  close  during  the  night. 
The  Dandelion  and  Marigold  are  examples. 

Shakspeare  notices  this  fact  in  the  Marigold  in  the 
following  lines, 

Her  eyes  like  marigolds  had  sheathed  their  light, 

And  canopied  in  darkness  lay 

Till  they  might  open  to  adorn  the  day. 

This  change  of  the  leaves  and  closing  of  the  flowers 
are  what  is  called  the  sleep  of  plants.  It  seems  to  take 
place  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  light. 

Light  acts  beneficially  on  the  upper  surface  of  leaves 
and  hurtfuily  on  the  under  side  ;  hence  the  upper  sur- 
face is  always  turned  to  the  light  in  whatever  situation 
the  plant  may  happen  to  be  placed. 

The  leaves  of  a  great  number  of  plants  follow  the 
sun  in  his  daily  course.  Clover  is  an  example. 

Many  flowers  also  follow  the  sun,  as  the  Sunflower 
11 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VEGETABLES. 

and  other  compound  radiate  ones.  "  In  their  forms 
Nature  seems  to  have  delighted  to  imitate  the  radiant 
luminary  to  which  they  are  apparently  dedicated,  and 
in  the  abscence  of  whose  beams,  many  of  them  do  not 
expand  their  blossoms  at  all.'5 

It  has  already  been  mentioned^  that  the  functions  of 
the  leaves,  in  decomposing  carbonic  acid  and  deliver- 
ing out  its  oxygen,  were  performed  only  in  the  sun- 
shine. The  most  important  functions  of  flowers  are 
also  performed  in  the  sunshine  only.  Most  plants 
vegetate  but  imperfectly  in  the  shade,  and  scarcely  at 
all  in  perfect  darkness.  Trees,  which  are  overgrown 
by  others  around  them,  decline  and  finally  die. 

Leaves  and  flowers  are  attracted  by  light,  and  prob- 
ably have  their  vital  functions  stimulated  by  it. 

The  pinnate  leaves  of  the  Sensitive-plant,  Mimosa 
sensitwa,  and  some  other  plants,  have  a  most  extraor- 
dinary sensibility  not  only  to  light  but  to  the  touch  of 
any  extraneous  body  or  to  any  sudden  concussion.  By 
even  a  gentle  impression  to  one  of  the  leflets  they  will 
close  together,  one  pair  after  another,  and  finally  the 
whole  leaf  will  drop  down  to  the  stalk. 

"  Weak  with  nice  sense  the  chaste  Mimosa  stands, 
From  each  rude  touch  withdraws  her  timid  hands  ; 
Oft  as  light  clouds  o'erpass  the  summer  glade, 
Alarmed,  she  trembles  at  the  moving-  shade, 
And  feels  alive  through  all  her  tender  form 
The  whispered  murmurs  of  the  gathered  storm  ; 
Shuts  her  sweet  eyelids  to  approaching  night, 
And  hails  with  freshened  charms  the  rising  light." 

Hedysarum  gyraus  has  a  spontaneous  motion  in  its 
leaves,  independent  of  any  external  stimulus,  even  of 
light,  and  only  requiring  a  very  warm  atmosphere  to 
be  performed  in  perfection.  That  it  does  not  depend 
on  any  motion  of  the  atmosphere  is  proved  by  its  con- 
tinuing under  a  glass  bell. 

These  various  phenomena  depend  no  doubt  on  what 
is  termed  vital  irritability,  which  means  a  power  in  liv- 
ing beings  independent  of  any  thing  mechanical,  by 
which  they  act  when  certain  agents  are  applied. 


INSTRUMENTS  FOR  BOTANIZING.  123 


IT  remains  to  make  some  observations  on 

Instruments  for  botanizing  and  the  method  of  preparing 
an  Herbarium. 

INSTRUMENTS. 

1.  A  small  knife,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  bodkin,  a  pair 
of  forceps,  and  a  glass  or  microscope  for  dissecting 
and  examining  plants. 

A  bodkin  may  be  made  by  fitting  a  piece  of  wood  in- 
to the  sliding  socket  of  a  pencil  case  and  inserting  a 
needle  into  it. 

The  forceps  should  be  a  simple  spring  ;  a  strip  of 
brass  or  other  metal  bent  over  at  a  short  angle  like  a 
V,  about  2  inches  long,  points  i  inch  apart,  to  close  by 
pressure  with  the  fingers  like  sugar-tongs.  These  will 
be  found  very  convenient. 

These  several  instruments  should  be  in  a  pocket  case* 

A  simple  glass  of  from  one  to  two  inch  focus,  such 
as  the  watch-makers  use,  or  a  penknife  with  a  glass  in 
the  handle,  as  may  now  be  obtained  in  the  shops,  will 
answer  very  well. 

Pocket  microscopes  with  a  reflector  to  illuminate  the  object, 
and  adjusting-  forceps,  are  now  manufactured  and  sold  by  J. 
Peirce,  optician,  Marlborough  street,  Boston,  which  are  very  use- 
ful, especially  in  examining  the  grasses  and  mosses,  besides  being* 
convenient  for  examining  any  other  small  interesting  object. 

2.  A  tin  box  to  receive  those  specimens,  when  col- 
lected, which  are  afterward  to  be  examined.     A  close 
box  of  this  kind  immediately  becomes  full  of  the  va- 
pour of  the  plants.   Further  evaporation  being  thus  pre- 
vented, the  plants  are  preserved  fresh  for  days,  espe- 
cially if  a  few  drops  of  water  be  put  in  with  them.     It 
may  be  made  of  a  flattened  form  so  as  to  be  carried  in 
the  pocket. 

3.  A  portfolio,  furnished  with  strings,  containing  a 
parcel  of  paper  like  a  large,  thin  book,  to  collect  those 
specimens  which  are  to  be  dried  and  preserved. 


1.24  HERBARIUM. 

HERBARIUM. 

A  collection  of  dried  specimens  of  plants  is  called 
an  Herbarium  or  Hortus  siccus. 

Upon  the  subject  of  collecting  and  preparing  speci- 
mens 1  refer  the  reader  to  Smith's  botany  and  to  Rich- 
ard's Dictionary,  New-Haven  translation,  giving  at  the 
same  time  the  outlines  of  a  metbod  which  I  have  found 
very  successful  in  practice. 

The  most  usual  method  of  preparing  specimens, 
is  to  dry  them  between  papers  under  pressure,  which 
is  the  method  I  am  to  give  some  account  of. 

When  a  specimen  is  taken  it  should  be  put  into  the 
portfolio  or  into  a  book  immediately,  before  it  wilts  to  al- 
ter its  habit.  Very  little  care  should  be  taken  in  placing 
the  various  parts,  except  that  some  of  the  flowers  may 
be  laid  open  so  as  to  display  the  parts  which  compose 
them.  If  the  plant  be  small,  the  root  and  all  the  oth- 
er parts  should  be  taken.  If  it  be  tall  like  the  grasses,  it 
should  be  cut  into  pieces  and  brought  upon  the  paper,  or 
partially  broken  in  several  places  and  folded  down  once 
or  more  in  a  zigzag  manner,  passing  the  last  fold  ob- 
liquely across  the  others,  and  tying  it  to  them  with  silk 
or  thread  where  it  crosses  them,  that  it  may  keep  in 
place  when  handled. 

Every  thing  belonging  to  the  natural  habit  of  the 
plant  should  be  preserved  ;  the  dead  leaves  should  be 
suffered  to  remain,  and  even  a  little  of  the  native  rub- 
bish upon  the  roots  often  indicates  the  peculiar  situa- 
tion in  which  the  plant  grows. 

The  specimens  are  next  to  be  dried  under  pressure, 
which  may  be  applied  by  laying  a  board  upon  the  pa- 
pers containing  them,  and  putting  weights  upon  it,  or 
by  placing  them  between  two  shelves  and  setting  a  prop 
down  upon  them,  or  by  a  press  made  for  the  purpose. 
There  should  be  paper  enough  to  accommodate  itself 
to  the  inequalities  of  the  specimens,  and  by  pressing 
upon  them  uniformly  and  equally  in  every  part  to  pre- 


HERBARIUM.  125 

vent  them  from  shrivelling,  which  is  the  very  object  of 
pressing  them.  The  degree  of  pressure  should  be  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  specimens,  more  being 
necessary  for  rugged  woody  ones  than  for  delicate 
herbaceous  ones  $  it  should  never  be  so  great  as  to 
break  the  specimen  and  force  out  the  juices.  I  com- 
monly apply  from  50  to  1  or  2  hundred  pounds. 

When  a  number  of  specimens  are  to  be  dried  at 
once,  several  folds  of  empty  paper  should  be  interpos- 
ed between  them,  and  if  they  are  rigid,  a  piece  of  book- 
binder's pasteboard  also.  The  specimens  should  be 
frequently  taken  out  and  put  into  dry  papers. 

The  following  is  the  most  expeditious  and  effectual 
method  of  drying  the  papers  I  have  tried. 

Take  a  few  spare  sheets,  and  having  laid  the  tongs 
or  other  convenient  instrument  from  one.  andiron  to 
the  other  of  a  kitchen  fire,  set  them  up  against  it. 
When  the  one  next  the  fire  is  sufficiently  dry  and 
warm,  remove  it  and  place  a  specimen  in  it,  applying 
the  damp  paper  from  which  the  specimen  has  been  taken, 
to  the  backside  of  the  parcel  before  the  fire,  and  so  on, 
taking  a  dry  paper  from  the  fo reside  of  the  parcel  and 
applying  a  moist  one  to  the  backside,  until  all  the  spe- 
cimens are  changed,  when  they  are  to  be  replaced  in  the 
press 

Another  method  equally  effectual  and  more  comfort- 
able in  warm  weather,  though  not  so  expeditious,  is  to 
iron  the  papers  dry  with  a  hot  flat-iron,  instead  of  plac- 
ing them  before  the  fire,  and  then  place  the  specimens 
in  them  as  before. 

This  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  once  or  twice  in 
a  day,  or  oftener  if  the  weather  be  damp,  or  the  speci- 
mens crowded.  The  best  specimens  I  ever  nrenarcd 
were  done  by  changing  and  drying  the  papers  once 
every  half  hour  until  they  were  dry.  I  cornmoniy  \\$Q 
printing  paper,  which  having  little  size,  is  more  ab- 
sorbent than  other  kinds. 
11* 


126  HEKBARIUM. 

Plants  which  are  not  very  rigid,  can  be  dried  very 
well  in  a  book  without  changing,  if  only  two  or  three 
are  put  into  a  volume.  Plants  dry  very  variously  ; 
some  unavoidably  turn  black  by  drying,  as  the  Or- 
chis  and  Cypripedium.  Flowers  in  many  instances 
lose  or  change  their  colour  $  those  that  are  blue  es- 
pecially. 

After  a  specimen  is  dry,  it  should  first  be  done  over 
with  a  solution  06  corrosive  sublimate  in  spirits  of 
wine,  one  drachm  to  a  pint,  with  a  little  camphor ;  or  a 
solution  of  aloes,  applied  by  means  of  a  camel's  hair 
pencil.  This  proves  effectual  in  preventing  the  attacks 
of  insects.  It  is  next  to  be  fastened  to  paper,  which  is 
best  done  by  means  of  carpenter's  glue.  I  first  used 
a  solution  of  gum  Arabic,  but  specimens  fastened  with 
it  are  very  apt  to  get  detached  in  a  short  time,  especi- 
ally if  handled.  Glue  is  much  superior.  As  it  will 
not  keep  in  a  dissolved  state  any  length  of  time,  it 
must  be  dissolved  at  the  time  of  using,  and  made  into  a 
thin  size,  which  may  be  done  by  boiling  a  small  piece 
in  water  in  any  convenient  small  vessel.  A  few  drops 
of  the  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  should  be  added. 
The  specimen  should  be  held  out  in  one  hand,  and  the 
size  applied  while  warm  uniformly  over  one  side  of  it, 
with  the  other,  by  means  of  a  large  camel's  hair  pencil. 
It  is  then  to  be  put  immediately  on  the  paper.  Take 
care  to  place  it  right  the  first  time,  otherwise  the  size 
will  deface  the  paper  where  is  is  not  required  ;  a  piece 
of  waste  paper  should  be  laid  over  the  specimen  and 
another  under  the  paper.  In  this  state  put  it  immedi- 
ately in  the  pres&  between  two  or  more  quires  of  empty 
paper  to  form  a  bed  for  it,  and  screw  the  press  firmly 
upon  it.  Let  it  remain  one  or  two  minutes,  and  taking 
it  out  remove  the  waste  papers  and  apply  new  ones  ; 
repeat  this  as  often  as  they  are  soiled  by  the  size,  other- 
wise the  papers  will  be  glued  together. 

The  paper  is  usually  directed  to  be  of  the  folio  size, 
(the  full  size  of  a  quire.)  I  have  commonly  used  what 


HERBARIUM.  127 

is  called  demy  printing  paper,  folded  quarto  size,  (half 
the  size  of  the  quire.)  1  fasten  my  specimens  to  the 
right  hand  side  of  a  folded  sheet,  leaving  the  other  to 
fold  over  it.  On  the  outside  of  the  left  hand  side  I 
write  the  names  of  the  Class,  Order,  Genus,  and  Spe- 
cies of  the  plant  ;  and  upon  the  inside  of  the  same,  its 
name,  synonyms,  common  names,  place  of  growth, 
time  of  gathering,  and  any  thing  else  I  wish  to  remem- 
ber concerning  it. 

Great  neatness  should  be  observed  in  an  herbarium. 
The  papers  should  ail  be  of  the  same  size,  and  kept 
regularly  and  evenly  packed.  I  have  usually  kept  mine 
in  several  parcels,  each  between  two  pieces  of  book- 
binder's pasteboard,  tied  down  with  tapes. 

The  uses  of  prepared  specimens  are, 

1.  To  get  a  knowledge  of  Plants.      When  a  number 
of  plants  are  well  prepared,  we  have  an  opportunity  to 
compare  them  with  each  other  all  at  once,  and  see  in 
what  they  agree,  and  in  what  differ. 

Observation.  When  a  botanist  has  taken  and  examined  a  speci- 
men, dried  and  prepared  it  on  paper,  as  has  been  directed,  and 
written  its  name  upon  it,  he  will  have  done  about  enough,  and  pro- 
bably none  too  much  to  remember  it  well.  It  is  well  for  every  one, 
who  wishes  to  be  in  any  degree  a  practical  botanist,  to  prepare 
a  few  specimens,  if  it  be  only  fifty  or  an  hundred  species.  In- 
dependent of  the  value  of  the  collection,  he  will  thus  acquire  a  par- 
ticular knowledge  of  the  plants. 

2.  To  revive  in  the  memory  the  names  and  habits  of 
plants  which  have  been  previously  examined. 

3.  Tojind  out  unknown  plants  which  cannot  be  other- 
wise determined,  by  sending  the  specimens  to  some  one 
acquainted  with  them.     For  this  purpose   duplicates 
should  be  prepared  and  numbered  with  corresponding 
numbers,  one  set  being  retained  when  the  other  is  sent 
for  examination. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDENTS. 


A  few  general  questions  are  here  put  down.  It  is 
left  for  the  instructer  to  construct  particular  questions 
extemporaneously,  from  the  subject  of  the  lesson  be- 
fore him  ;  varying  them  according  to  the  knowledge 
and  capacity  of  "the  pupil.  For  in  this  as  well  as  oth- 
er casses  an  instructer  will  find  it  necessary  to  seek 
out  what  avenues  are  open  to  the  young  mind,  and 
shape  his  precepts  accordingly. 

1.  What  is  Natural  History  ?  p.  1. 

2.  Into  how  many  branches  is  Natural  History  di- 
vided, and  what  are  they  called  ?  p.  1. 

3.  Of  what  does  Zoology  treat  ?  p.  !„ 

4.  Of  what  does  Botany  treat?  p.  1. 

5.  Of  what  does  Mineralogy  treat  ?  p.  1. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  Characters  ?  p.  3. 

7.  Give  an  example  of  a  simple  character  of  a 
plant  ?  p.  3. 

3.  What  is  system  ?  p.  3. 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  system  ?  p  3. 

10.  How  is  the  vegetable  kingdom  divided,  accord- 
ing to  the  Linnsean  system  ?  p.  4. 

11.  What  divisions  are  the  Classes  ?  p.  4. 

12.  What  are  the  Orders  ?  p.  4. 

13.  What  are  Genera?  p.  4. 

14.  Give  an  example  of  a  Genus  ?  p.  4. 

15.  How  is  a  Genus  known  ?  p.  4. 

16.  By  what  mark  is  the  family  of  Buttercups 
known  ?  p.  4. 

17.  What  are  Species  ?  p.  4. 

18.  Give  an  example  of  the   Species  of  a  genus? 
p.  4  &  5. 

1 9.  What  are  Varieties,  and  how  are  they  distinguish- 
ed from  species  ?  p.  5. 


QUESTIONS.  1£9 

£0.  Give  an  example  of  Varieties,  p.  5. 

21.  To  what  are  Classes,  Orders,  Genera,  and  Spe- 
cies compared?  p.  5. 

22.  What  are  Vegetables  ?  p.  5. 

23.  What  are  the  Primary  divisions  into  which  Bo- 
tanists divide  a  plant  or  vegetable  ?  p.  5. 

24.  Define  the  Root,  p  6. 

£5.  Of  what  part  does  the  root  consist  ?  p.  6. 

26.  Which  of  these  is  most  necessary  ?  p.  6. 

27.  Of  what  does  the  Herbage  consist  1  p.  10. 

29.  How  many  kinds  of  Trunks  are  enumerated  ? 
p.  10. 

50.  Name  each  of  the  7  kinds  and  define  it  so  as  to 
see  how  they  differ  from  each  other,  p.  10,    15,  16, 
18,  19,  20. 

51.  What  do  Buds  contain  ?  p.  20. 

32.  What  is  intended  by  Foliation  ?  p.  20. 

33.  Define  a  Leaf.  p.  22. 

34.  What  is  a  simple  leaf  ?  p.  26. 

35.  What  are  compound  leaves  ?  p.  35. 

36.  How  is  a  compound  leaf  distinguished  from  a 
branch  ?  p.  35. 

37.  What  is  meant  by  Inflorescence  ?  p.  40. 

38.  Define  the  Appendages   of  plants,   as  Stipule, 
Bract,  Spine,  Prickle,  Tendril,  Gland,  Hair,  arid  men- 
tion examples,  p.  38. 

39.  Define  the  various   kinds  of  Inflorescence,  as 
Whorl,   Raceme,   Spike,   Corymb,   Fascicle,    Umbel, 
Cyme,  Panicle,  Thyrse,  and  mention  examples,  p.  40. 

40.  Of  what  does  the  Fructification  consist  ?  p.  45. 

41.  What  is  the  use  of  the  fructification  ?  p.  45. 

42.  Does  every  species  of  plants  produce  flower  and 
fruit  ?  p.  45. 

43  Define  the  seven  parts  of  fructification,  Calyx, 
Corolla,  Stamen,  Pistil,  Pericarp,  Seed,  and  Recep- 
tacle, p.  45. 

44.  Which  of  these  parts  are  essential  and  always 
present  ?  p.  43. 

45.  Name  and    define    the   several  kinds  of   Ca- 
lyx, p.  46. 


ISO  QUESTIONS. 

46.  Name  and  define  the  several  kinds  of  Corolla, 
p.  49. 

47.  What  is  the  Nectary  ?  p.  53. 

48.  Of  how  many  parts  does  a  Stamen  consist  ?  p.  54. 

49.  Which  of  these  is  essential  and  always  present, 
and  which  sometimes  wanting  ?  p.  54. 

50.  What  is  the  Pollen  ?  p.  54. 

51.  What  causes  the  Anther  to  burst?  p.  55. 

52.  What  are  the  grains  of  Pollen  ?  p.  55. 

53.  What  causes  the  grains  of  Pollen  to  burst  ?  p.  55. 

54.  Of  what  parts  does  a  Pistil  consist?  p.  55. 

55.  Which  of  these  is  absent  in  some  flowers  ?  p.  55. 

56.  What. are  the  functions  of  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils ?  p.  56. 

57.  From  the  office  the  stamens  and  pistils  perform, 
is  it  necessary  they  should  be  present  in  every  species 
of  plant  ?  56. 

58.  When  a  flower  has  stamens  only,  what  is  it  cal- 
led ?  p.  57. 

59.  When  a  flower  has  pistils  only,  what  is  it  cal- 
led ?     p.  57. 

60.  When  a  flower  has  stamens  and  pistils  both, 
what  is  it  called  ?  p.  67. 

61.  What  part  of  the  flower  forms  the  seed-vessel  or 
Pericarp  ?  p.  57. 

62.  What  are  the  various  kinds  of  pericarps?  p.  57. 

63.  What  part  of  the  fructification  are  all  the  other 
parts  designed  to  perfect  ?  p.  59. 

64.  What  is  the  Receptacle  ?  p.  62. 

65.  When  is  the  receptacle  called  proper  and  when 
common  ?  p.  62. 

66.  What  is  an  aggregate  flower  ?  p.  62. 

67.  Define  the  several  kinds  of  aggregate  flowers 
p.  62. 

68.  What  is  the  use  of  dividing  arid  subdividing  the 
vegetable  kingdom  into  Classes  and  Orders  ?  p.  64. 

69.  Why  are  the  Classes  and  Orders  called  Artificial 
divisions  ?  p.  64. 


QUESTIONS.  131 

70.  Name  the  Classes  and  give  the  character  by 
which  each  is  known,  p.  65. 

71.  Name  the  Orders  and  give  the  characters  by 
which  they  are  distinguished,  p.  68. 

72.  Define  a  Genus,  p.  79. 

73.  What  is  meant  by  the  Generic  character  ?  p.  80. 

74.  What  are  species  ?  p.  83. 

75.  What  is  meant  by  the  Specific  character  ?  p.  84. 

76.  From  what  parts  of  the  plant  are  the  characters 
of  the  Classes  taken  ?  p.  85. 

77.  From  what  parts  are  the  characters  of  the  Or- 
ders taken  ?  p.  85. 

78.  From  what  parts   are  the  characters  of   the 
Genera  taken  ?  p.  85. 

79.  From  what  parts  are  the  characters  of  Species 
taken  ?  p.  85. 

80.  How  do  you  proceed  to   find  out  an  unknown 
plant  ?  p.  86. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 


PLATE  1. 

ROOTS. 

Fig.    1.  A  FIBROUS  ROOT.     Ex.  Grass,  p.  7. 

2.  CREEPING.     Ex.  Mint. 

3.  FUSIFORM  or  SPINDLE-SHAPED.  Ex.  Radish. 

4.  ABRUPT. 

Tuberous  Roots. 

5.  TUBEROUS.     Ex.  Potatoe. 

6.  Twin  tuberous  root.     Ex.  Orchis. 

7.  Palmate  tuberous  root. 

8.  Fasciculate  tuberous  root. 

Bulbous  Hoots.—]).  8. 

9.  Solid  bulbous  root.     Ex.  Tulip. 

10.  Coated  bulbous  root.    Ex.  Onion. 

11.  Scaly  bulbous  root.     Ex.  Lily. 

12.  GRANULATED,  p.  9. 

13.  JOINTED. 


134  EXPLANATION  OP  PLATES. 

PLATE  2. 

TRUNKS. 

Fig.  1.  A  STEM  (caulis.)  p.  10. 

2.  Four-ranked  stem.  p.  11. 

3.  Dichotomous  or  forked  stem.  p.  11. 

4.  Creeping  stem. 

5.  Twining  stem.     Ex.  Convolvolus.  p.  12. 

6.  CULM  (cuJmtw.)  Ex.   Grass,  p.  15. 

7.  SCAPE.     Ex.  Dandelion. 

a.  The  scape. 

It.  A  naked  receptacle. 

c.  The  pappus. 

d.  A  flower. 

3.  FROND.    Ex.  Polypodium  vulgaris.  p.  19. 

8  a.  STIPE,  p.  20. 

9  a.  A  stipe  also.     Ex.  Fungus. 

b.  The  Volve,  c.  the  Head  of  the  fungus, 


1S6  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  S. 

FOLIATION. p.  23. 

These  figures  represent  sections  of  buds. 
Fig.  I.  A  convolute  bud* 

2.  Involute. 

S.  Revolute. 

4.  Conduplicate. 

5.  Ob  volute. 

6.  Equitant. 
•7.  Plicate. 

8.  Imbricate. 

9.  Circinal. 

FRUCTIFICATION  OF  THE  FERNS. — p.  73. 

10.  A  Fern  leaf  having  its  fruit  covered  with  in- 

volucres, a.  One  of  the  involucres  or 
patches  magnified. 

11.  A  capsule  of  the  same.    a.  Its  ring.    6.  The 

hemispherical  valves. 

FRUCTIFICATION  OF  THE  MOSSES. — 73. 

12.  AMoss.  a.  The  Perichsetiurn,  as  in  the  genus 

Hypmnn*  b.  The  Peduncle,  c.  The  Fruit. 

13.  A  capsule  of  a  species  of  Hypnum  magnified. 

14.  The  same  with  the  Calyptra  b.  separated. 

15.  The  same  with  the  Lid  (operculum)  b.  sepa- 

rated, exposing  the  fringe,  a. 

16.  The  same  with  the   exteriour   row  of  the 

fringe  a.  expanded,  the  interiour  with  the 
points  gathered  in  the  centre* 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  VEGETABLE  BODY. p.  102. 

17.  A  section  of  the  branch  of  an  Ash  magnified. 

«,  The  bark.  /,  The  wood,  b,  The  sap-ves- 
sels, c,  The  concentric  layers,  d,  The  sil- 
ver grain,  e,  The  pith. 

18.  The  section  of  its  natural  size* 

19.  A  tube  or  sap-vessel  with  its  coat  variously 

perforated  and  slitted  in  a  spiral  manner, 
£0.  A  simple  spiral  tube. 


EXPLANATION  OE  PLATES. 

PLATE  4. 

LEAVES. 

Situation  and  position  of  leaves.—- p.  22. 

Fig.    1.  Alternate  leaves,  p.  23. 

2.  Scattered. 

3.  Opposite. 

4.  Clustered. 

5-  Verticillate  or  Whorled. 

6.  Fasciculate. 

7.  Imbricate. 
8*  Decussate. 
9.  Two- ranked. 

10.  Unilateral. 

Insertion. — p.  24. 

11.  Peltate,  p.  24. 

12.  Amplexicaul  or  Clasping,  p.  25. 

13.  Connate. 

14.  Perfoliate. 

15.  Vaginant. 

16.  Equitant. 

17.  Decurrent. 

18.  Flower-bearing. 


8  EXPLANATION  OF  PLAiES* 

PLATE  5. 

LEAVES  CONTINUED, 

Form  of  Simple  Leaves. — p.  26. 

Fig.    1.  Orbicular  or  circular,  p.  £6. 

2.  Subrotund  or  roundish, 

S.  Ovate. 

4.  Obovate. 

5.  Elliptical. 

6.  Spatulate.  p.  27. 

7.  Lanceolate. 

8.  Wedge-shaped 

9.  Linear. 

3  0.  Acerose  or  needle-shaped. 

11.  Triangular. 

12.  Quadrangular,  and  Truncate  also. 
IS.  Quinquangular. 

14.  Deltoid,  or  trowel-shaped. 

15.  Rhomboid. 

16.  Reniform,  or  kidney-shaped. 

17.  Cordate,  or  heart-shaped. 

18.  Lunate,  or  crescent -shaped,  p.  28* 

19.  Saggittate,  or  arrow-shaped. 

20.  Hastate,  or  halbert-shaped. 

21.  Pandviriform,  or  fiddle-shaped. 

22.  Runcinate,  or  lion-toothed. 

23.  Lyrate,  or  lyre-shaped. 

24.  Cleft  or  cloven. 

25.  Lobed. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  139 

PLATE  6. 

LEAVES    CONTINUED. 

Fig.    1.  A  Sinuated  leaf.— p.  28. 

2.  Parted. 

3.  Laciniated.  p.  29. 

4.  Palmate,  or  hand-shaped. 

5.  Pinnatifid. 

6.  Bipinnatifid. 

7.  Pectinate. 

8.  Unequal. 

Termination. — p.  29. 

9.  Premorse.  p.  30. 

10.  Retuse. 

11.  Emarginate. 

12.  Acuminate. 

13.  Blunt,  with  a  small  point 

14.  Mucronate. 

15.  Cirrhose,  or  tendrilled. 

Margins. — p.  30. 

16.  Spinous. 

17.  Ciliate,  or  fringed. 

18.  Dentate,  or  toothed,  p.  31. 

19.  Serrate. 

20.  Crenate. 


140  EXPLANATION  OF  PI.ATES. 

PLATE  7. 

XEAVES  CONTINUED. 

Fig.    1.  Jagged. — p.  31. 

2.  Repand,  wavy-bordered. 

Surface. 

3.  Plaited,  p.  32. 

4.  Undulate. 

5.  Curled. 

6.  Veiny. 

7.  Nerved. 

8.  Three-nerved. 

9.  Base-three-nerved,  p.  33. 

10.  Triply. nerved. 

Substance,  Configuration,  #c.— p.  3S. 

11.  Cylindrical. 

12.  Subulate,  or  awl-shaped, 
IS.  Hatchet-shaped. 

14.  Scimitar-shaped. 

15.  Three-edged. 

16.  Four-edged. 

17.  Alienated. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  141 

PLATE  8. 

LEAVES  CONTINUED, 

Fig.    1.  -Hooded,  p.  35. 

2.  Appendaged. 

Compound  Leaves. 

3.  Jointed. 

4.  Digitate,  or  fingered,  and  Quinate  also. 

5.  Binate. 

6.  Tern  ate.  p.  56. 

7.  Pinnate,  with  an  odd  leaflet.     It  is  also  a 

compound  leaf,  simply-^-see  p.  37. 
a*  A  Stipule. 

8.  Pinnate,  with  a  tendril. 

«.  A  Stipule. 

9.  Pinnate,   abruptly. 

10.  «  alternately.         * 

11.  "  interruptedly. 

12.  «  « in  a  ly rate  manner. 

13.  «  in  a  whorled  manner. 


142  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  9. 

i 

LEAVES  CONTINUED. 

Fig.    1.  Twice  ternate.  p.  37. 

2.  Triternate. 

3.  Bigeininate,  twice  paired. 

4.  Bipinnate,  and  Decompound  also. 

5.  Tri pinnate,  and  Superdecompound  also. 

6.  Pedate. 

APPENDAGES. 

7.  A  Bract,  p.  38. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  143 

PLATE  10. 

APPENDAGES  CONTINUED. — p.  38. 

Fig.  1.  Spine,  or  thorn,  p.  39. 
2.,  A  Prickle. 

3.  Glands  on  the  leaf-stalk  of  the  Passion- 

flower. 

4.  Glands  on  the  calyx  of  the  Moss  Rose. 

5.  The  Nettle,    a.  One  of  the  stings  (stimuli) 

magnified.  It  is  a  tube  opening  at  the 
point  and  containing  a  sack  of  poison  at 
the  base,  which  when  pressed  on  is  dis- 
charged through  the  point  and  produces 
the  inflammation  and  itching  in  the  skin. 

6.  A  hairy  leaf. 

INFLORESCENCE. p.  40. 

7.  A  Whorl,  p.  40. 

8.  Raceme. 

9.  Spike,  p.  41. 


144  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  11. 

IFFLORESCENCE  CONTINUED. 

Fig.  1.  A  Corymb,  p.  41. 

2.  Fascicle,  p.  42. 

3.  Umbel. 

a.  The  universal  or  general  umbel  and  in- 
volucre. 
&.  The  partial  umbel  and  involucre. 

4.  Cyme.  p.  43. 

5.  Panicle. 

6.  Thyrse. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  145 

PLATE  12. 

FRUCTIFICATION. 

Parts  of  a  Flower. — p.  45. 
Fig.  1.  White  Lily,  Lilium  candidum. 

a  a.  a.  The  Co  HOLLA  consisting  of  6  petals. 

b.  The  STAMENS. 

c  The  PISTIL, 

d.  The  NECTARY,  which  is  a  groove  in  the  petal, 

2.  A  dissection,  showing  the  stamens  and  pistil, 

and  likewise  (lie  RECEPTACLE,  a. 

3.  A  STAMEN,  consisting  of 

b.  The  Filament,  and 

a.  The  Anther,  p.  54. 

4.  The  PISTIL,  consisting  of 

c.  The  Germen, 

b.  The  Style,  and 

«.  The  Stigma.— p.  55. 

13 


146  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES, 

PLATE  13. 

CALYX. 

Fig.  1.  Perianth.     Ex.  Pink.  p.  46. 

2  &  3.  Ament.     Ex.  Willow,  p.  48. 

2.  The  barren  flower,  b.  A  floret  magnified  consisting 
of  2  stamens  and  a  scale  which  protects  them. 

3  The  fertile  flower,  a.  A  magnified  floret,  consisting 
of  a  pistil  and  a  scale  which  protects  it. 

4.  Ament  of  the  Hazel,  a.  The  barren,  and  b.  The  fer- 
tile flowers. 

5.  Spathe.     Ex.  Wild  Turnip,  Arum.  p.  48. 

a.  A  stamen-bearing,  and  b*  A  pistil-bearing  spadix. 

6.  a.  The  spathe  of  the  Narcissus. 

b.  Its  Nectary. 

7.  The  Glume. 

a.  The  valves. 

b.  The  awns.  p.  49. 

8.  b.  The  Calyptra.     Ex.  Polytricum.  p.  49. 

COROLLA. 

9.  Bell-shaped,  p.  51. 

10.  Funnel-shaped,  p.  51. 

a.  The  tube. 

b.  The  limb. 

11.  Salver-shaped,  p.  51. 

12.  Wheel-shaped,  p.  51. 

13.  Ilingent,  showing  the  stamens  separated,  p.  51. 

«.  The  upper  lip  or  helmet. 
b.  The  lowar  lip  or  beard. 

14.  Personate.  Ex.  Antirrhinum. 

a.  The  palate. 

b.  The  nectary. 

15.  Cruciform. 

a.  b.  One  of  the   petals  separated,  a   its  claw,  b  its 
border. 

c.  The  stamens  separated. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  147 

PLATE  14. 

COROLLA  CONTINUED. 

Fig.  1.  Papilionaceous  or  Butterfly-shaped  flower. 
Ex.  Sweet  Pea.  p.  52. 

2.  A  dissection  of  the  same. 

a.  The  banner. 
If.  b.  The  wing-s. 
c.  The  keel. 

NECTARIES. 

3.  Spur-shaped  Nectary  of  the  Columbine,  Jlqui* 

tegia.  p.  53. 

4.  Nectaries  of  the  Monk's-hood,  Aconitum. 

5.  Fringed  Nectary  of  the  Parnassia.  p.  54. 

PERICARPS. — p.  57. 

6.  Capsule  of  the  Thorn-apple,  Datum  Stram- 

momum.  p.  57. 

a.  The  cells. 

b.  The  columns. 

7.  Silique.  p.  58. 

a.  The  dissepiment. 

b.  The  valves. 

8.  Silicic. 

9.  Legume,  p.  58. 

10.  Drupe.     Ex.  Cherry,  p.  58. 

11.  Pome.     Ex.  Apple,  p.  59. 

12.  Berry.     Ex.  Gooseberry,  p.  59. 

1 3.  Compound  berry.     Ex.  Blackberry,  p.  59. 

14.  Strobile  or  Cone.  p.  59. 


14 S  !EXP1*ANATJOX  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  15.  A. 

CLASSES — See  Frontispiece. 

Tins  plate  contains  a  figure  of  a  flower  in  each  of 
no  24  Classes.     With  the  exception  of  1,  9,  and  23, 
they  are  either  native  or  commonly  cultivated. 

Fig.  1.  Monamlria,  1  stamen  ;  MareVtail,  Hippuris 
vidgaris.    Native  of  Britain. 

Tliis  is  an  example  also  of  the  order  Monogynia,  having-  1  pistil. 

2.  Biandria,  2  stamens  ;  Speedwell,  Veronica. 

3.  Triandria,  3  stamens  ;    Common  Timothy. 

grass  or  Herds-grass,  Fhieum  Pratense, 
much  magnified. 

a.  The  entire  Floret,  having  three  stamens  and   two 
feathered  styles  projecting- from  the  two  compressed 
glumes  which  enclose  them  at  the  base. 

b.  The  Pistil  shown  separate,  consisting  of  the  germen 
and  two  feathered  styles. 

This  is  an  example  also  of  the  order  fiigynia,  having  2  styles. 

4.  Tetrandria,  4  stamens  ;  Cornel,  Cornuspani- 

culata,  somewhat  magnified, 

5.  Pentandria,  5 stamens;  Common  Elder, Sam-. 

bucu-s  niger,  magnified. 

It  is  an  exemple  also  of  the  order  Tryginia,  having-  three  sessile 
fitig-mas. 

6.  Hexandria,   6  stamens ;    Barberry,  Berberis 

vulgaris. 

7.  Heptandria,  7  stamens  ;    Chickweed  winter- 

green,  Tnentalis  Europeans. 

8.  Octiindria,  8  stamens ;  Dwarf  tree  primrose, 

(Enothera  pumila. 

9.  Enneandria,   9   stamens ;    Flowering  Rush, 

Butomus  umbellatus.     Native  of  Britain. 
This  is  also  an  example  of  the  order  Hcxag^nia^  having  6  pistils-, 

10.  Decaridria,  10  stamens  ;  Broad-leaved  Lau- 

rel or  Lamb-kill,  Kalmia  latifolia. 

11.  Dodecandria,  12  to  19  stamens  ;  Houseleek, 

Sernperowum  tetforum. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  149 

PLATE    15.    CONTINUED. 

12.  Icosandria,  20  or  more  stamens  inserted  into 

the  calyx  ;  Pear,  Pyrus  communis. 

tn  this  specimen  the  five  stamens  opposite  the  segments  of  the 
calyx  are  shorter  than  the  rest. 

B. 

13.  Polyandria,  stamens  more   than  20,  inserted 

into  the  receptacle  ;  Celandine,  Chelidonium 
majus. 

14.  Didyriamia,   stamens   2  long  and   2  short ; 

Selfheal,  Prunella  Pennsylvania. 

a.  The  flower. 

b.  The  stamens  and  pistils  shown  separate  and  magni- 

fied. 

In  tlje  genus  Prunella  the  filaments  are  forked,  and  the  anther 
borne  on  one  point  of  the  fork,  as  seen  in  the  figure. 

15.  Tetradynamia,  stamens  4  long  and  2  short ; 

White  Mustard,  Sinapis  alba. 

a.  The  flower  of  the  natural  size. 

b.  The  stamens  and  pistil  magnified. 

c.  Glandular  nectaries  at  the  base  of  the  stamens. 

d.  One  of  the  petals. 

16.  Monadelphia,   stamens  united   by  their  fila- 

ments into  one  tuhe  ;  Mallow,  Makca. 

a.  The  flower. 

b.  The  stamens  and  pistil  separated  from  the   other 

parts  of  the  flower. 

c.  The  tube  of  the  united  filaments. 

d.  The  anthers. 

e.  The  styles  passing  through  the  tube  and  appearing 

at  top  like  a  pencil. 

An  example  also  of  the  order  Polyandria,  having  many  stamens. 
IS* 


^50  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES; 

PLATE  15.  CONTINUED. 

IT.  Diadclphia,  stamens  united  into  two  parcels  f 
Sweet  Pea,  Lathy rus  odoratus. 

a    The  flower. 

b.  The  stamens  and  pistil  separated   from  the   other 

parts. 

An  example  also  of  the  order  JJecandria,  having1  ten  stamens. 

In  this  as  in  many  other  pspilionaceous  flowers,  there  are  nine 
stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  one  parcel  and  one  stamen 
not  united.  This  drawing-  was  made  from  the  dissection  of  a  flow- 
er not  quite  expanded,  in  which  the  anthers  were  entire  and  con 
sequently  large. 

Fig.  18.  Polyadelphia,  stamens  united  into  more  than 
two  parcels  ;  St.  John's-wort.  Hypericum. 

An  example  also  of  the  order  Potyandria,  having1  many  stamens. 

19.  Syngenesia;  stamensmnited  by  their  anthers 
into  a  tube,  flowers  compound.  A  floret  of 
the  Dandelion,,  Leontodon  Taraxacum. 

A.  The  corolla. 

B.  The  stamens. 

c.  The  Jive  separate  filaments* 
d    Tlie  tube  of  united  anthers. 
E.  The  pistil. 

f.  The  germen. 
'ff.  The  style. 

h.   The  stigma. 

i.    The  pappus. 

20  Gynandria,  stamens  united  with,  or  growing 
out  of  the  pistil  |  Ladies'-slipper,  Cypri- 
pediwn  acaule. 

a.  The  pistil. 

b.  The  germen. 

c.  The  style  and  stigma. 

d.  One  of  the  anthers. 

e.  The  pistil  separated,  having  the   anthers  attached 

to  the  sides. 
An  example  also  of  the  order  Fiandria>  having  two  stamens. 

21.  Moncecia,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate 
flowers  on  the  same  plant  5  Sedge-grass, 
Carex  ccespitosa. 


Otf  PLATES.  151 

PLATE    15.    CONTINUED. 

A.  The  stamen-bearing-  spike. 

b.    One  of  the  florets  separated,  consisting  of  a  glume 

and  3  stamens. 
C.  The  pistil-bearing"  spikes. 
d.  One  of  the  florets  separated,  consisting  of  a  pistil 

constituted  of  a  germen,  two  styles,  and  a  glume 

which  protects  them. 
It  is  also  an  example  of  the  order  Triandria,  having  three  stamens. 

22.  Dioecia,  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flow- 
ers on  separate  plants  of  the  same  species  5 
Willow,  Salix. 

A.  A  stamen-bearing  ament. 

b.    A  floret  separated,  consisting  of  two  stamens  pro- 
tected by  a  scale. 
C.  A  pistil-bearing  ament. 
d.  One  of  the  florets  separated,  consisting  of  a  pistil 

protected  by  a  scale. 
It  is  also  an  example  of  the  order  Dianctria,  having  two  stamens'. 

Fig.  23.  Polygamia,  stamens  and  pistils  separate  in 
some  flowers,  united  in  others,  either  on 
the  same  plant,  or  on  two  or  three  sepa- 
rate ones  of  the  same  species  ;  Fig,  Ficus. 

a.  A  stamen-bearing  flower. 

b.  A  pistil. bearing  flower. 

c.  A  perfect  flower. 

It  is  likewise  an  example  of  the  order  Triacia,  the  three  kinds 
of  flowers  being  on  three  different  trees. 

24.  Cryptogamia,  stamens  and  pistils  obscure. 

A.  A  a  Fern,  Polypod,  Polypodium  vulgaris. 
b.    The  patches  of  fructification. 

C.  Hair-cap  Moss,  Polytrichum. 

D.  Scarlet  Lichen,  Lichen  cocineus. 

The  above  are  examples  of  three  of  the  orders  of  Oyptogamia, 
viz.  Filices,  Musci,  and  Hepaticae. 

Several  of  the  24  classes  of  Linnaeus  have  been  abandoned  by 
several  eminent  botanists.  The  classes  Polyadelphia  and  Polyga- 
mia  particularly  have  been  rejected,  and  the  plants  distributed  in 
other  classes.  These  are  rejected  in  Eaton's  *'  Manual,"  which 
is  consequently  arranged  under  22  classes. 


152  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES, 

PLATE  16, 

COMPOUND  FLOWERS. p.  70. 

Fig.  1.  A  compound  radiate  Flower.    Field  Dasiy. 

a.  The  ray  or  external  circle  of  florets, 

b.  The  disk  or  centre. 

c.  A  lig-ulate  floret  of  the  ray  separated. 

d.  A  tubular  floret  of  the  disk  separated- 

2.  A  ligulate  Flower.     Dandelion* 

a.  One  of  the  florets  separated. 

3.  A  Discoid  flower.     Burdock. 

a.  A  floret  separated. 

SEEDS. 

4.  A  Seed  and  its  appendages. 

a.  The  seed. 

b.  The  stipe. 

c.  The  pappus  or  down.  p.  60. 

5.  The  wing  of  a  seed.  p.  61 

6.  A  seed  having  one  cotyledon,  p.  60. 

7.  A  seed  having  two  cotyledons,  p.  60. 

a.  a.  The  cotyledons. 

b.  c   The  corcule. 
b.  The  radicle,  and 
e.  The  plume. 

8.  A  seed  having  many  cotyledons,  p.  60. 

9.  Seminal  leaves    p.  60. 
10.  Anatomy  of  wood.  p.  104. 


INDEX. 


Abrupt  leaf.    See  truncated,  29. 

Abruptly  branched  stem,  11. 

Abruptly  pinnate  leaf,  36. 

Abrupt  root,  7. 

Acerose  leaf,  27. 

Acinus,  59. 

Acuieus.    See  Prickle,  39. 

Acotyledonous  plants,  CO. 

Acute  leaf,  30. 

JEqualis  poly  gam  ia,  71. 

Aggregate  flo\vrer,  62,  63. 
raceme,  40. 

Ala.    See  Wings,  52. 

Mbumen,  101. 

Alburnum,  105. 

Aerology,  1. 

Alienated  leaf,  34. 

Alpine  plants,  2. 

Alternate  leaves,  23. 

Alternately  pinnated  leaf,  36. 

Ament,  48. 

Amentaceous  flower,  63. 

Ample  xicaul  leaves,  25. 

Jlnceps  caulis.     See  two-edged 
stem,  13. 

Angiospermia,  69. 

Annual,  6. 

Anther,  54. 

Appeiidaged  leaf,  35. 

APPENDAGES,  38. 

Arillus>  60. 

Arista,     See  Awn,  49 

Arrow-shaped  leaf.     See  Sagit- 
tate, 28. 

Articulated.     See  Jointed, 

Appressed  leaves,  23. 

Arboreous  stem,  7. 

Arms  of  plants,  48. 

Artificial  system,  64. 

Ascending  stem,  12. 


Attenuated  peduncle,  18. 
Auricled  leaf,  36. 
Awn,  49 
Axillary  peduncle,  16, 

B 

liacca.     See  Berry,  59. 

Banner,  52. 

Bark,  98. 

Barren  flowers,  57. 

Base  three  nerved,  33. 

Beard.     See  Awn,  49. 

of  the  corolla,  51. 
Bell-shaped  corolla,  50. 
Berry,  59. 
Biennial,  6. 
Bifid  leaf,  28. 
Bigeminate  leaf,  37. 
Binate  leaf,  35. 
Binate  leaves,  23. 
Bipinnatifid  leaf,  29. 
Bipinnate  leaf,  37. 
Biternate  leaf,  37. 
Blistery  leaf,  32. 
Blunt  leaf.     See  Obtuse,  30. 
Border  of  the  petal,  50. 
Botany  defined,  1. 
Brachiatus    caulis.      See  Four- 

ranked,  11, 
Bract,  38. 
Bristle}',  14. 
BUDS,  20. 
Bulbous  roots,  8. 
Butterfly-shaped  corolla.      See 

Papilionaceous,  52. 

C 

Caducous  corolla,  52, 
Calyculate  calyx,  47. 
Caiyptra,  49. 
Calyx,  46. 


154 


JNBEX. 


Cambium,  115. 

Campanulata  corolla.     See  Bell- 

shaped,  51. 
Canilicuiatum  folium.  See  Chan- 

nelled,  33. 

Capitulum.     See  Head,  42. 
Capsule,  57. 
Carina.     See  Keel,  52. 
Cartilaginous  leaf,  31. 
Catkin.     See  Ament,  48, 
Caudex,  6. 
Cauline  leaves,  22. 

peduncle,  16. 
Caulis.     See  Stem,  10. 
Cells  of  the  seed-vessel,  58. 
Cellular  integument,  103. 
Characters,  3. 
Ciliate  leaf;  30. 

calyx,  47. 
Cirrhose  leaf,  30. 
Cirrhus.     See  Tendril,  39. 
Classes,  general  definition  of,  4. 

explained,  55. 
Clasping-  leaves.     See  Amplexi- 

caul,  25. 

Claw  of  the  petal,  50. 
Cleft  leaf,  28. 

perianth,  47. 
Climbing-  stem,  12. 

petiole,  19. 

Club-shaped  petiole,  19. 
Cluster.     See  Raceme,  40. 
Clustered  peduncles,  17. 

leaves,  23. 
Coloured  leaf,  33. 
Collumn,  58. 
Common  peduncle,  16. 

receptacle,  62. 
Compound  Berry,  59. 
corymb,  42. 
flowers,  63, 
leaf,  35. 
leaves,  35. 
peduncle,  16. 
spike,  41. 
umbel,  42. 
Compressed  leaf,  33. 
stem,  13. 
Gencave  leaf,  32* 


Conduplicate  leaf,  31. 

Cone.     See  Strobile,  59. 

Conjugate  leaf,  37. 

Connate  leaves,  35. 

Convex  leaf,  32. 

Corcule,  59. 

Cordate  leaf,  27. 

Coriaceum  folium.  See  Lathery, 
34. 

COROLLA,  49. 

Cortex,  104> 

Corymb,  41. 

Costatum  folium.  See  Nerved,  32. 

Cotyledons,  59. 

Creeping.     See  Repent, 

Crenate  leaf,  31. 

Crispum  folium.    See  Curled,  32. 

Cross-shaped  corolla.  See  Cru- 
ciform. 

Cruciform  corolla,  52. 

Cryptogamia  class,  67. 

Cucullatum  folium*  See  Hooded; 
35. 

CUL*,  15. 

Cuneiform  leaf,  27. 

Cup -shaped  nectary,  54. 

Curled  leaf,  32. 

Cuticle,  103. 

Cylindrical  leaf,  33. 

Cyme,  43. 

Cymose  flower,  63. 

D 

"Decandria,  65. 
Deciduous  corolla,  52. 

leaf,  34 

Decompound  leaf,  37. 
Decurrent  leaves,  25. 
Decurrently  pinnated  leaf,  36. 
Decussate  leaves,  23. 
Deltoid  leaf,  27. 
Dense  panicle,  43. 
Dentate  leaf,  31. 
Depressed  leaf,  33. 
Diadelphia,  66. 
Diandria,  65. 
Dichotomous  stem,  11. 
Dicotyledonous  plants,  69. 
Didynamia,  66. 


INDEX. 


155 


Digitate  leaf,  35, 
Digynia,  69. 
Dimidiate  involucre,  48. 
Dicecia,  67 

Dipetalous  corolla,  50. 
Discoid  flowers,  71. 
Disk,  71. 

Dissectum  folium,  27. 
Dissepiments,  5£ 
Distichus  cciutis.    See  Two-rank- 
ed, 10. 

Divaricate  panicle,  43. 
Dodec'indria,  65. 
Dotted  leaf,  32. 
Doubly  serrate  leaf,  31. 
Down      See  Pappus,  60. 
Downy,  14* 

Drooping-  peduncle,  17. 
Drupe,  58. 


Elliptical  leaf,  26. 
Emarginate  leaf,  30. 
Embryo.     See  Corcule,  59. 
Emerged  leaves,  24. 
Enneandria,  65 
Ensiform  leaf,  34. 
Entire  leaf,  30. 
Epidermis,  103. 
Equitant  leaves,  25. 
Erect  leaves,  24. 

stem,  11. 

Erosum  folium.    See  Jagged,  31. 
Essential  character,  82. 
Equal  corolla,  50. 
Evergreen  leaves,  34. 
Exotic  plants,  2 
Extra-axillary  peduncles,  17. 


Fascicle,  42. 
Fasciculate  leaves,  23. 
Fascicular  root,  8. 
Fastigiate  stem,  11. 
Faux.     See  Throat,  51. 
Feathery  pappus.    See  Plumose, 

61. 
Ferns.     See  Filices,  73. 


Fertile  flowers,  59. 
Fibrous  root,  7. 
Fiddle-shaped  leaf.    See  Pandu- 

nform,  28. 
Filament,  54. 
Filices,  73. 

Filiform  peduncle,  18. 
Fingered  leaf.    See  Digitate,  35. 
Fistulous  stem.  See  Hollow,  15. 
Five-sided  stem,  13. 
Flaccid  peduncle,  17. 
FlagelLform  stem,  12. 
Flattened  petiole,  19. 
Fleshy  leaf,  33. 

FlexufAis  peduncle,  17. 
stem,  12. 

Florets,  70 

Floscular  umbel,  43. 

Flower-bearing  leaf,  25. 

Foliation,  20.    * 

Forked  stem.  See  Dichotomouss 
11. 

Four-cornered  stem,  13. 

Four-edged  leaf,  34. 

Four  ranked  stem,  11. 

Fringed  leaf.    See  Ciliate,  30. 

Fringe  of  mosses,  74. 

Frond,  19. 

Frustranea  polygamia,  72. 

Fruticose  stem,  8 

Fulcra.     See  Supports,  39. 

Functions  of  the  stamens  and 
pistils,  56. 

G 

Galea.     See  Helmet,  51. 
Gape  of  the  corolla,  51. 
Gemma.     See  Bud,  20. 
Genera,  general  definitions  of,  4. 
particular  explanation  of, 
79. 
Generic  characters,  80. 

names,  80. 

Geniculate  culm,  15. 
Germen,  55. 
Germination,  100. 
Gibbous  leaf,  23. 
Glabrous.    See  Smooth,  14. 


156 


INDEX. 


Gland,  39. 
Glandular  leaf;  31. 

nectary,  54. 

Glaucous.     See  Mealy,  14. 
Glume,  49. 
Glumose  flower,  63. 
Granulated  root,  9. 
Gymnospermia,  69. 
Gynandria,  67. 

H 

Hairs  of  plants,  39. 

Hairy,  14. 

Hairy  pappus.     See  Pilose,  61. 

Halbert-shaped  leaf.     See  lias- 

tate,  28* 

Half  cylindric  stem,  13. 
Hastate  leaf,  28. 
Hatchet-shaped  leaf,  34. 
Head,  42. 

Heart-ovate  leaf,  38. 
Heart-shaped  leaf.  See  Cordate, 

27. 

Helmet  of  the  corolla,  51. 
Hepaticae,  74. 
Heptandria,  65. 
Herb,  2. 

Herbaceous  stem,  10. 
HERBAGE,  10. 
Herbarium,  123. 
Hexandria,  65. 
Hexapetalous  corolla.  50. 
Hilum    See  Scar,  60. 
Hispid.     See  Bristly,  14. 
Hoary,  14. 
Hollow  stem,  15. 
Hood  of  mosses.     See  Calyp- 

tra,  49. 

Hooded  leaf,  35. 
Horizontal  leaf,  24. 
Hortus  Siccus,    See  Herbarium, 

123. 

Husk.     See  Glume,  49. 
Hypocrateriform  corolla.     See 

Salver-shaped,  51. 


losandria,  65. 


Imbricate  leaves,  23. 
calyx,  47. 

Incanus.     See  Hoary,  14. 
Incomplete  corolla,  52. 

flower,  62. 

Incrassated  peduncle,  18. 
Incurved  leaves.    See  Inflexed, 

24. 

Indigenous  plants,  2. 
Inducinm,  73. 
Liferiour  germen,  55. 
calyx,  55. 
corolla,  55. 
Inflated  calyx,  47. 
Inflexed  leaves,  24. 

INFLORESCENCE,  40. 

Infundibuliformis  corolla.       See 

Funnel-stiaped,  51. 
Integrum  folium*     See  Entire, 

30. 

Interruptedly  pinnate  leaf,  36. 
Interrupted  spike,  41. 
Introduction,  1. 
Involucre,  48. 

of  the  ferns,  73* 
Involute  leaf,  31. 
Irregular  corolla,  50. 


Jagged  leaf,  31. 
Jointed  culm,  15. 

leaf,  35. 
Jointedly  pinnated  leaf,  36, 


Keel,  52. 

Kingdoms  of  Nature,  1. 
Kidney-shaped  leaf.      See  Reni- 
form,  27. 


Labiate  flowers.     See  Ringent 

and  Personate,  51. 
Lacinnated  leaf,  29. 
Lamina.     See  Border,  50. 
Lanceolate  leaf,  27. 
Lateral  peduncle,  17. 
Lax  panicle,  43. 


INDEX. 


In? 


Leafless  plants,  22. 
Leathery  leaf,  34. 
Leaves,  22. 
Legume,,  58. 
Liber,  104. 
Ligulute  coiolla,  52. 
florets,  71. 
Liliaceous  corolla,  52. 
Limb  of  the  corolla,  50. 
Linear  leaf,  27. 
Lion -toothed  leaf.     See   Runci- 

« ate,  28. 

Liverworts.     See  Hepatic x.  74. 
Lobed  leaf,  28. 

leaves,  26. 
Loment,  58. 
Lunulate  leaf,  27. 
Lyrate  leaf,  28. 

M. 

Maculatus.     See  Spotted,  14. 
Marcescent  corolla,  52. 
Mealy,  14. 
Medulla,  106. 
Medullary  stem,  15, 

Membranous  leaf,  35. 

pappus,  61. 

Mineralogy,  1. 
Monadelphia,  66. 
Monandria,  65. 
Monocotyledonous  plants,  60. 
Moncecia,  67. 

Monogamia  Syngenesia,  72. 
Monogyni?,  69. 
Monopetalous  corolla,  50, 
Monophyllous  calyx,  47. 
Mosses.     See  Musci,  73. 
Mucronate  leaf,  30. 
Muricate  calyx,  49. 

Musci,  73. 

N 

Naked  flower,  62. 

Natant  leaves,  24. 

Natural  orders,  89. 

History  defined,  1. 
Necessariapolyg-amia,  72. 
Nectariferous    glands.        See 
r  nectary,  54. 

14 


Nectariferous  scale,  54. 

Nectary,  53. 

Needie-sha.ped  leaf.      See  Ace- 
rose,  27. 

Nerved  leaf,  32. 

Nicked  leaf.     See  Emarginate, 
30. 

Nitidus*     See  Shining,  14. 

Notched   leaf*       See    Emargi- 
nate,  30. 


Clique  leaves,  24. 
Oblong  leaf,  26. 
Obovate  leaf,  26. 
Obtuse  leaf,  30. 
Octandria,  65. 
One-rowed  panicle,  43. 

spike,  41. 

Opposite  leaves,  22. 
Orbicular  leaf,  26. 
Orders,  general  definition  of,  4. 
particularly  explained,  68. 
Orifice  of  the  corolla,  50. 
Oval  leaf.     See  Elliptical,  26. 
Ovate  leaf;  26. 
Ovate-lanceolate,  38. 


Palate,  51. 
Palmate  leaf,  29. 

root,  6. 

Panduriform  leaf,  28. 
Panicle,  43. 
Paniculate  stem,  11. 
Papilionaceous  corolla,  52. 
Papillose,  14. 
Pappus,  60. 
Parted  leaf,  28. 

Perianth,  47. 
Partial  involucre,  48. 

peduncle,  16. 
Patentia  folia.     See  Spreading-, 

24. 

Pectinate  leaf,  29. 
Pedate  leaf,  37. 

Pedicelled  down.    See  Stipitatf 
pappus,  61. 


158 


INDEX. 


Peduncle,  16. 

Peltate  leaf,  24. 

Pcntagonus  cutilis.  See  Five- 
sided,  13. 

Pentandria,  65. 

Pentapetalous  corolla,  50. 

Perennial,  6. 

Perfect  flowers,  57. 

Perfoliate  leaves,  25. 

Perianth,  46. 

Perianthium  diphyllwn.  See  two- 
leaved,  47. 

Pericarp,  46,  57. 

PericJifliwn,  49. 

Peristomium.     See  Fringe,  74. 

Personate  corolla,  51. 

Perspiration  of  leaves. 

Petal,  49. 

Petiolate  leaves,  24. 

Petiole,  17. 

Pilose  pappus,  61. 

Pilosus.    See  Hairy,  14. 

JPilus.     See  Hair,  39. 

Pinnate  leaf,  36. 

Pinnatifid  leaf,  29. 

Pistil,  46,  55. 

Pistil-bearing  flowers,  57. 

Pith,  106. 

Plaited  leaf,  32. 

Plumose  pappus,  61. 

Plumula.     See  Plume,  59. 

Pod.     SeeSilicle,  58. 

Poisonous  Plants,  rules  to  dis- 
tinguish, 88. 

Pollen,  54. 

Polished,  14. 

Polyadelphia,  66. 

Polyandria  16. 

Polycotyledonous  plants,  60. 

Poly  gam  ia,  67. 

Polygynia,  69. 

Polypetalous  corolla,  50. 

Pome,  59. 

Prsemorse  root.  See  Abrupt,  7. 
leaf,  30. 

Prickle,  39. 

Primary  divisions  of  a  vegeta- 
ble, 5. 

Prismatic  calyx,  47. 


Procumbent  stem,  11. 
Proliferous  stem,  11. 
Proper  receptacle,  62. 
Prostrate  stem,  12. 
Pubescence,  39. 


Quadrangular  leaf,  27. 

Quadrangular  stem.  See  Four- 
cornered,  13. 

Quaternate  leaves,  23. 

Quinate  leaves,  23. 

Quinquangnlaris  caulis,  See 
Five- sided,  13. 

R 

Raceme,  40. 

Radiate  compound  flowers,  71» 

umbels,  43. 
Radical  leaves,  22. 
Rndicans  cau!is9  12. 
Radicant  stem,  12. 
Radicle  of  the  eorcule,  59. 
Radicles  of  the  root,  6. 
Radix.     See  Root,  6. 
Rameal  leaves,  22. 
Ramose  peduncle,  16. 
Ray,  71. 

Receptacle,  46,  62. 
Reclinate  leaf,  24. 
Reclining  stem,  12. 
Rectus  caulis.    See  Straight,  12. 
Recurved  leaves,  24. 

petioie,  19. 
Reflexed  leaves.    See  Recurved, 

24. 

Regular  corolla,  50. 
Reniform  leaf,  27. 
Repand  leaf,  31. 
Repens  cautis9ll. 
Radix,  7. 

Resupinate  leaves,  24. 
Retuse  leaf,  30. 
Revolute  leaf,  31. 
Rhomboid  leaf,  27. 
Ribbed  leaf.     See  Nerved,  32. 
Rictus.     See  Gape,  51. 
Ring  of  the  ferns,  73. 
Ringent  corolla,  51. 


INDEX. 


159 


HOOT,  6. 

Rosaceous  corolla,  52. 

Rotate   corolla.       Sec    Wheel- 

shaped,  51. 
Round  stem,  13. 
Roundish  leaf,  26. 
Rugged  leaf.  See  Wrinkled,  32. 
fiugosum folium.  See  Wrinkled, 

32. 
Runcinate  leaf,  28. 


Salver-shaped  corolla,  51. 
Sagittate  leaf,  28. 
Sap,  110. 
Sap-vessels,  110. 
Sarmentose  stem,  12. 
Scabrous,  14. 
Scaly,  13. 
Scale  nectary,  54. 
Scaly  bulbous  root,  8. 

scape,  16. 

Scandens.     See  Climbing,  12. 
Scape,  15. 

Scar  of  the  seed,  60. 
Scariose  calyx,  47. 
Scattered  peduncles,  17. 

leaves,  23. 

Scimitar-shaped  leaf,  34. 
Secunda  folia.     See  Unilateral, 

Secunda  spica.      See   One-row- 
ed,  41. 

Secundus  racemm,  40. 

Seeds,  46,  59. 

Seed-vessel.     See  Pericarp,  57. 

Segregata  polygamia,  72. 

Scmiteres  caulis.     See  Half  cy- 
lindric,  13. 

Seminal  leaves,  60. 

Separated  flowers,  57. 

Serrate  leaf,  31. 

Sernilatum  folium.  See  Minute- 
ly serrate,  31. 

Sessile  anther,  54. 
leaves,  25. 
pappus.  61, 

Shaggy,  14. 


Sheath.     See  Spathe,  48. 
Sheathing  leaf.      See  Vaginant, 

25. 

Shining  14. 
Shrub,  2. 
Silicle,  58. 
Siliculosa,  70. 
Siliqua.     See  Sllique,  58. 
Silique,  58. 
Silver-grain,  106. 
Simple  flower,  62. 

leaves,  26. 

peduncle,  16, 

petiole,  19. 
Sinuated  leaf,  28. 
Sleep  of  plants,  121. 
Solid  bulbous  root,  8. 
Solitary  peduncle,  17. 
Spadix,  49. 
Spadiceous  flower,  63. 
Spathe,  48. 
Spatulate  leaf,  27. 
Species  of  plants,  4,  83. 
Specific  character,  83. 
Spike  41. 
Spikelet,41. 
Spine,  39. 
Spinous  leaf,  SO. 

cal}x,  47. 
Spiral  vessels,  113. 
Spiral  stalk.     See  Twining,  1%, 

spike,  41. 

Spreading  stem,  12. 
petiole,  19. 
leaves,  24. 
Spotted  stem,  14. 
Spur,  53. 
Squamosum  periamhiimim*     See 

Imbricate,  47. 
Squarrose  perianth,  47. 
Stamens,  46,  54. 
Stamen- bearing  flowers,  57. 
Stameniferous  flowers,  57. 
Standard.     See  Banner,  52. 
Stem,  10. 

Stemless  plants,  16. 
Stigma,  55. 
Stipe,  23. 


160 


ISTDEX. 


Stipitate  pappus,  61. 

Stipule,  38. 

Striated,  14. 

Strictus  caulis.  See  Straight,  12. 

Strobile,  59. 

Style,  55. 

Submersed  leaves,  24. 

Subrotundum  folium,  26. 

Subsessile  leaf,  58. 

Subulate  leaf.  S3. 

Sulcatus.     See  Furrowed,  14. 

Super  flu  a  poly  gam  ia,  71. 

Superiour  calyx,  55. 

corolla,  55. 

g-ermen.  55. 

Superdecompound  leaf,  57. 
Sword-shaped  leaf.      See  Ensi- 

form,  34. 
Syngenesia,  70. 
System  of  Linnaeus,  64. 

T 

Table   of  the   Classes  and  Or- 
ders, 75. 

Tail  of  the  seed,  61. 

Tendril,  39. 

Tendiilled  leaf.      See  Cirrhose, 
30. 

Teres  caulis  t  13. 

folium.     See  Cylindrical, 
33. 

Tergeminate  leaf,  3f . 

Terminal  peduncle,  17. 

Ternate  leaf,  36. 

Testa.  See  Skin,  60. 

Tetradynamia,  66. 

Tetragonum  folium.      See  Four- 
edged,  34. 

caulis,  13. 

Tetragynia,  69. 

Tetrandria,  65. 

Tetrapetalous,  corolla,  50. 

Thorn,  39. 

Three-edged  leaf,  34. 

Three  nerved  leaf,  32. 

Three-lobed  leaf,  28. 

Three-sided  leaf,  34. 
stem,  13. 


Thyrse,  43. 

Tomentosus.     See  Downy,  14. 

Tongue- shaped  leaf,  ;>4. 

Toothed  leaf.     See  Dentate,  31. 

Tree,  2. 

Triandria,  65. 

Triangular  leaf,  27. 
stem,  13. 

Trigonum  folium.     See  Three- 
edged.     54. 

Trig-onus   caulis.      See    Three- 
sided,  13. 

Trigyma,  69. 

Trilnbum  folium.      See    Three- 
loted,  28. 

Triner-ve  folium.      See    Three* 
nerved,  S2. 

Trioecia,  72. 

TripUnerve folium*  33. 

Tripiunate  leaf,  37. 

Tripeialous  corolla,  51. 

Triternate  leaf,  37. 

Trowel-shaped  leaf.      See  Del- 
toid, 27. 

Truncate  leaf,  29. 

Tube  of  the  corolla,  50. 

Tuberous  root,  7. 

Tubular  corolla,  51. 
florets,  71. 
leaf,  33. 

Tuft.     See  Capitulum,  42. 

Tunicate  bulb,  8. 

Turbinate  perianth,  47. 

Twin  root,  7. 

Twining  stem,  12. 

Two-edged  leaf,  34. 

stem,  13. 

Two-ranked  leaves,  23. 
stem,  10. 

Two-rowed  spike,  41. 

U 

Umbel,  42. 

Umbellate  flowers,  63. 
Unarmed  leaf,  30. 
Under-shrub,  2. 
Undivided  leaf,  26. 
Undulate  leaf,  32. 


INDEX. 


161 


Unequal  leaf,  29. 

corolla,  50. 
Unilateral  leaves,  23. 

raceme,  40. 
United  flowers,  57. 
Universal  involucre,  48. 
umbel,  42. 


Vaginant  leaves,  25. 

Valves,  57. 

Variegated  leaf,  33. 

Varieties,  5,  85. 

Vegetable  defined,  5. 

Veiny  leaf,  32. 

Ventticosum    perianthium.      See 

Inflated,  47. 

Vemcosus.     See  Warty,  14. 
Vertical  leaves,  24. 
Verticillate  stem,  11. 
Verticillus.     See  Whorl,  40.  • 
Vexillum.     See  Banner,  52. 
Villosus.     See  Shaggy,  14. 
Viscid,  14. 
Vitellus,  101. 
Volubilis  caulis.      See  Twining1, 

12. 


Volva,  49. 


W 


Warty,  14. 

Waved  leaf.     See  Undulate,  32* 

Wedge-  shaped  leaf,  26. 

Wheel-shaped  corolla,  51. 

Whorl,  40. 

Whorled  leaves.     See  Verticil- 
late,  23. 

Whorled  stem.      See  Verticil- 
late,  11. 

Wings  of  a  papilionaceous  flow- 
er, 52. 

Wing  of  the  seed,  61. 

AVinged  stem,  13 . 
petiole,  19. 

Wood,  104. 

Wrapper.     See  Volva,  49. 

Wrinkled  leaf,  32. 


Yoked  leaf.  See  Conjugate, 
Yolk,  101. 


Zoology,  1 


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